Characters Used for Japanese Composition

Japanese letters used for composing Japanese text mainly consist of ideographic (cl-19), hiragana (cl-15) and katakana (cl-16) characters (see ).

Kanji, Hiragana and Katakana

Ideographic (cl-19), hiragana (cl-15) and katakana (cl-16) characters are the same size, and have square character frames of equal dimensions. Aligned with the vertical and horizontal center of the character frame, there is a smaller box called the letter face, which contains the actual symbol. Character size is measured by the size of the character frame (see ). "Character advance" is a term used to describe the advance width of the character frame of a character. By definition, it is equal to the "width" of a character in horizontal writing mode, whereas it is the height of a character in vertical writing mode (see ).

Principles of Arrangement of Kanji and Kana Characters

In principle, when composing a line with ideographic (cl-19), hiragana (cl-15) and katakana (cl-16) characters no extra space appears between their character frame. This is called solid setting (see ).

Specification of Page Formats

The page format of a Japanese document is specified by:

• Firstly, preparing a template of the page format, which determines the basic appearance of pages of the document;

• Then, specifying the details of actual page elements based on the templates.

Basic Templates of Page Formats

Generally, books use only one template for page format, whereas magazines often use several templates.

Although in books, as will be mentioned in c of , there tends to be one template for the page format, the basic pattern is typically adapted. For example, the table of contents may contain small modifications. Furthermore, there are many examples of indexes with a different page format than the basic page format, and vertically set books often have indexes in horizontal writing mode and sometimes multiple columns. This still holds true where the goal is to make the size of the hanmen for indexes close to the size of hanmen in the basic page format.

Magazines gather articles of different kinds. Often the page format will differ depending on the content of the article. For example, one part may have 9 point character size and 3 columns, and another part 8 point character size and 4 columns.

Elements of Page Formats

The following are the basic elements of a page format. illustrates an example of a page format in vertical writing mode).

1. Trim size and binding side (vertically set Japanese documents are bound on the right-hand side, and horizontally set documents are bound on the left-hand side. See .)

2. Principal text direction (vertical writing mode or horizontal writing mode).

3. Appearance of the kihon-hanmen and its position relative to the trim size.

4. Appearance of running heads and page numbers, and their positions relative to the trim size and kihon-hanmen.

Elements of Kihon-hanmen

The kihon-hanmen is the hanmen style designed as the basis of a book. The following are the basic elements of the kihon-hanmen (see ).

1. Character size and typeface name

2. Text direction (vertical writing mode or horizontal writing mode)

3. Number of columns and column gap when using multi-column format

4. Length of a line

5. Number of lines per page (number of lines per column when using multi-column format)

6. Line gap

Kihon-hanmen and Examples of Real Page Format

Below are several examples of how the basic page format is created, and how then various elements are placed on a real text page. (This and other aspects of how the various elements of the kihon-hanmen are arranged on each page are explained in .)

1. Realm and position of headings

   To set a heading, first establish a rectangular space based on a number of lines in the kihon-hanmen. For example, a '3 line space' means (3 * the size of the character frame used for the kihon-hanmen + 2 * the line gap in the kihon-hanmen). (Details of this processing are defined in JIS X 4051, sec. 8.3.3.d). The heading text is usually set in the centre of the rectangular space in the block direction, and indented from the line head. The size of the indent is usually specified as a number of characters in the kihon-hanmen. For example, a '4 character indent' means (4 * the size of the character frames used for establishing the kihon-hanmen). (See the example at .)

   

   Details of the different types of heading, creation of headings, methods for placing headings, etc. is explained in 4.1 Handling of Headings (including Page Breaks).

2. Size of illustrations

   In horizontal writing mode with two columns, for example, the width of illustrations should, if at all possible, be either the width of one kihon-hanmen column or the width of the kihon-hanmen (see ). The illustrations are usually set at the head or the foot of the page (see ).

   

   Also, in vertical writing mode, for example with three columns, the height of illustrations should, if at all possible, be either the height of one kihon-hanmen column or the height of the kihon-hanmen (see ). The illustrations are usually set at the right side or left side of the kihon-hanmen (see ).

   

   Details of illustration positioning is explained in .

3. Hanmen size for the table of contents

   The hanmen size for the table of contents of books is based on the size of the kihon-hanmen. There are many examples of tables of contents in vertical writing mode where the left-to-right size is identical to that of the kihon-hanmen, but the top-to-bottom size is a little bit smaller (see ).

   

   There are cases when a different hanmen than the kihon-hanmen is used for positioning of running heads and page numbers. This will be discussed in (see ).

Directional Factors in Japanese Composition

Japanese composition has two text directions. One is vertical direction (vertical writing mode), the other is horizontal direction (horizontal writing mode).

Major Differences between Vertical Writing Mode and Horizontal Writing Mode

The following are major differences between vertical writing mode and horizontal writing mode.

1. Arrangement of characters, lines, columns and pages; direction of page progression.

   1. Vertical writing mode. See for an example of vertical writing mode with two columns per page.

      

      1. Characters are arranged from top to bottom, lines are arranged from right to left.

      2. Columns are arranged from top to bottom. A book starts with the left (recto) side and progresses from right to left (see ).

         

   2. Horizontal composition. See for an example of horizontal text layout with two-columns per page.

      

      1. Characters are arranged from left to right, and lines are arranged from top to bottom.

      2. Columns are arranged from left to right. A book starts with the right (recto) side and progresses from left to right (see ).

         

2. Orientation of Latin alphanumeric characters in a line.

   1. There are three ways to arrange Latin alphanumerics in vertical writing mode:

      1. One by one with the same normal orientation as that of Japanese characters. This is usually applied to one-letter alphanumerics or capitalized abbreviations (see ).

         

      2. Rotated 90 degrees clockwise. This is usually applied to English words or sentences (see ).

         

      3. Set horizontally without changing orientation (called tate-chu-yoko, which means horizontal-in-vertical composition) (see ). This is usually applied to two-digit numbers (see JIS X 4051, sec. 4.8 for the definition).

         

   2. In horizontal writing mode there is only one way of arranging alphanumerics, i.e. normal orientation.

3. Arrangement of tables and/or illustrations rotated 90 degrees clockwise or counter-clockwise for reasons of size. (This processing is defined in JIS X 4051, sec. 7.3.).

   1. In vertical writing mode, align the top of tables/illustrations to the right of the page (see ).

      

   2. In horizontal writing mode, align the top of tables/illustrations to the left of the page (see ).

      

4. Arrangement of an incomplete number of lines on a multi-column format page due to new recto, page break or other reasons. (The processing of new recto and page break is defined in JIS X 4051, sec. 8.1.1.).

   1. In vertical writing mode, just finish the line where it ends ("nariyuki"). The number of lines in each column is not uniform (see ).

      

   2. In horizontal writing mode, re-arrange columns so that each column has the same number of lines. In case the number of lines is not divisible by the number of columns, add the smallest number to make it divisible and re-arrange columns using the quotient as the number of lines so that only the last column shall have the incomplete number of lines (see ).

      

Procedure for Defining the Kihon-hanmen

In Japanese composition, first the size of the kihon-hanmen is defined, using the square character frames of characters in solid setting. Taking this as a base, the position of the kihon-hanmen with regards to the trim size is then specified. The following are procedures for determining the size and position of the kihon-hanmen (see ).

1. Specifying the dimensions of the kihon-hanmen.

   1. For a document with a single column per page, specify the character size, the line length (the number of characters per line), the number of lines per page, and the line gap.

   2. For a document with multiple columns per page, specify the character size, the line length (the number of characters per line), the number of lines per column, the line-gap, and the number of columns and the column gap.

      

2. Determining the position of the kihon-hanmen relative to the trim size.

   There are various alternative methods for specifying the position of the kihon-hanmen relative to the trim size:

   1. Position vertically by centering the kihon-hanmen. Position horizontally by centering the kihon-hanmen.

   2. Position vertically by specifying the space size at the head (for horizontal writing mode) or the space at the foot (for vertical writing mode). Position horizontally by centering the kihon-hanmen.

   3. Position vertically by centering the kihon-hanmen. Position horizontally by specifying the space size of the gutter.

   4. Position vertically by specifying the space at the head (for horizontal writing mode) or the space at the foot (for vertical writing mode). Position horizontally by specifying the space size of the gutter.

   

Considerations in Designing the Kihon-hanmen

The following are considerations to take into account when designing the kihon-hanmen. (This topic is not about processing, but rather an explanation of design preferences. The definition of kihon-hanmen is given in JIS X 4051, sec. 7.4.1.)

1. Trim size and margins. It would be best if the shape of the kihon-hanmen could be made similar to that of the trim size.

2. Character size. Generally 9 point (about 3.2mm) type is common. Except for specialized publications such as dictionaries, the minimum size of type is 8 point (about 2.8mm).

3. Line length should be multiples of the character size (see ).

   

4. Use the same amount of line gap throughout the book, except for special cases. The size of the kihon-hanmen in the block direction is specified using the number of lines and the size of the line-gap.

   

   

   

The size of the kihon-hanmen in this case can be calculated by following method:

• Vertical writing mode with one column

  Width of kihon-hanmen = character size × number of lines per page + line gap × (number of lines per page − 1)

  298 point = 9 point × 18 lines + 8 point × (18 lines − 1)

  Height of kihon-hanmen = character size × number of characters per line

  468 point = 9 point × 52 characters

• Vertical writing mode with multi columns

  Width of kihon-hanmen = character size × number of lines per column + line gap × (number of lines per column − 1)

  309 point = 9 point × 21 lines + 6 point × (21 lines − 1)

  Height of kihon-hanmen = character size × number of characters per line × number of columns + column gap × (number of columns − 1)

  468 point = 9 point × 25 characters × 2 columns + 18 point × (2 columns − 1)

• Horizontal writing mode with one column

  Width of kihon-hanmen = character size × number of characters per line

  315 point = 9 point × 35 characters

  Height of kihon-hanmen = character size × number of lines per page + line gap × (number of lines per page − 1)

  468 point = 9 point × 28 lines + 8 point × (28 lines − 1)

• Horizontal writing mode with multi columns

  Width of kihon-hanmen = character size × number of characters per line × number of columns + column gap × (number of columns − 1)

  320 point = 8 point × 19 characters × 2 columns + 16 point × (2 columns − 1)

  Height of kihon-hanmen = character size × number of lines per column + line gap × (number of lines per column − 1)

  476 point = 8 point × 40 lines + 4 point × (40 lines − 1)

Examples of Items Jutting Out of the Kihon-hanmen

The various elements of a page should remain inside the boundaries of the kihon-hanmen. However, there are exceptions such as the following:

1. Ruby or emphasis marks (bousen, emphasis dots, etc.) at the before edge of the hanmen, are placed outside the hanmen (see ). The same applies in cases where ruby, underline, etc. appear beyond the after edge of the hanmen. Like the handling of exceptions mentioned below, the purpose here is to preserve the line positions established for the kihon-hanmen. This technique can also be used for reference marks associated with lines of text.

   

2. When there are inline elements whose dimensions extend beyond the before edge and the after edge of a line of characters as determined by the kihon-hanmen, and when those elements appear in the first or last line of the hanmen, the parts that jut out beyond the regular line of characters also jut out of the hanmen area. For example, this is the case when the width of a sequence of characters which are set to tate-chu-yoko is wider than the characters set for the kihon-hanmen. In addition, warichu (inline cutting note) or subscript and superscript (ornament characters) are handled in the same way. (The processing rules for this item and the previous item are defined in JIS X 4051, sec. 12.1.1.)

3. Line adjustment by hanging punctuation is only necessary for full stops (cl-06) and commas (cl-07) when they would otherwise need to be wrapped to the line head. The character is placed so that it touches the hanmen at the line end (see ). (Hanging punctuation is not defined in JIS X 4051, but there is an explanation in sec. 8.1, c.)

   

4. Illustrations and tables are normally placed inside the area defined by the kihon-hanmen. However, there may also be cases in which a particular illustration or table juts outside the kihon-hanmen.

   1. Cases in which it is necessary to make the illustration or table larger than the kihon-hanmen, because reducing its size would make it unreadable.

   2. For the sake of visual effect, the illustration may bleed into the complete paper area. This is not often used in books, but is often used in magazines (see ).

      

5. Magazines may place the captions of illustrations outside the column area or in the column gap. (Some people regard this as bad style.)

Line Positioning based on the Kihon-hanmen Design

In principle, pagewise positioning of lines relies on the line positions established for the kihon-hanmen. This holds for lines with ruby or emphasis dots as shown in . Even when lines contain characters that are smaller than the character size used for the kihon-hanmen (as shown in ), the line positions used for the kihon-hanmen continue to be used as the basic guide lines. This is so that following lines with normal-sized characters still naturally fall into the line positions established for the kihon-hanmen.

The following are exceptions when handling line position:

1. When inserting more than one illustration or table item in horizontal writing mode, assuming that there is no text to the left or right of the items, the items may either slip off the lines established for the kihon-hanmen (see ), or stick to the lines (see ). The former approach is used, whenever possible, to achieve inter-character spacing before and after illustrations or tables constant. (This method is often used in books.) (This processing method is defined in JIS X 4051, sec. 10.3.2., d.)

   

   

2. The size of characters in endnotes inserted between paragraphs or those in footnotes at the bottom of the page (in horizontal writing mode) is smaller than the character size established for the kihon-hanmen. As a result, the character size and line gap are also smaller, and so the line positions are no longer identical to those established for the kihon-hanmen. As an example, shows the position of an endnote between paragraphs in vertical writing mode. (The processing of endnotes is defined in JIS X 4051, sec. 9.3, and the processing of footnotes in sec. 9.4.)

   

3. As mentioned above, the position of a heading may not be identical to the lines established for the kihon-hanmen. Nevertheless, in the block direction, headings base their alignment on the line positions established for the kihon-hanmen (see ).

Character Positioning based on Kihon-hanmen Design

In principle, the characters in each line follow the solid setting positions of characters established for the kihon-hanmen. However, as already shown in some of the previous figures, there are examples where this is not the case. Such cases are rather common, and here we will show some prototypical examples (details will be given in ).

1. When 9pt is the character size used to establish the kihon-hanmen, characters smaller than 9pt may be inserted in part of a line (see ). In such cases, the parts set at 9pt and any parts set at a smaller, say, 8pt size both use solid setting, with character frames at the respective sizes for each part.

2. In cases where proportional Latin letters are rotated 90 degrees clockwise (see ), the proportional letters are placed according to their proportional widths. Hence, they do not fit to the character positions established for the kihon-hanmen (see ). Japanese letters following the Latin letters consequently slip away from the default positions as well.

   

3. There are several methods for positioning opening brackets (cl-01) at the beginning of a line (details are explained in ). Because an opening bracket is not a full-width character, in cases where the indentation of the first line of a paragraph is a one em space, or if the tentsuki position is used for the bracket (that is, there is no space at the line head), the character following the bracket will be in a position which does not fit to the character positions established for the kihon-hanmen (see ). However, the adaptations made during the alignment of line ends will ensure that the character at the end of a line is at a position that fits with the kihon-hanmen.

   

4. 3 Line Composition explains that full stops (cl-06), commas (cl-07), opening brackets (cl-01) and closing brackets (cl-02) are half-width. If these punctuation marks and brackets are adjacent to ideographic (cl-19), katakana (cl-16) or hiragana (cl-15) characters, in principle there should be a half em space before or after the punctuation mark or brackets, so that these occupy in effect a full-width size. However, if they are adjacent to other punctuation marks or brackets, the half em space is not used. This is done to improve the visual appearance. In such cases, the character positions are different than the positions established when defining the kihon-hanmen (see ).

   

5. explains the principle that closing brackets (cl-02), full stops (cl-06) and commas (cl-07) should not be placed at the line head. If by simple sequential placement these characters would appear at the line head or at the line end, some kind of adjustment becomes necessary. A similar adjustment is required for characters that should not be placed at the end of a line, such as opening brackets (cl-01). As a result of such adjustment, it may happen that other characters are placed at positions which are different from those established for the kihon-hanmen.

   

Positioning of Running Heads and Page Numbers

Typical positions of running heads and page numbers for vertically set books with double running heads (see ) are as shown in .

Typical positions of running heads and page numbers for horizontally set books with double running heads (see ) are as shown in .

In principle, positions of running heads and page numbers should be specified relative to the kihon-hanmen, not with absolute coordinates in the trim size. (Positioning of running heads is defined in JIS X 4051, sec. 7.6.4. Positioning of page numbers is defined in JIS X 4051, sec. 7.5.4.)

The following recommendations should be taken into account when positioning running heads and page numbers with reference to the kihon-hanmen.

1. When positioning horizontal running heads and page numbers with reference to the kihon-hanmen in vertically set books, the amount of vertical space between the edge of the kihon-hanmen and the running head is a one em space as established for the kihon-hanmen. If the kihon-hanmen of the book is horizontally set, take more vertical space than the character size in the kihon-hanmen.

2. Regardless of the direction of text in the kihon-hanmen of a book, horizontal running heads and page numbers on the left page should be aligned either at the left edge of the kihon-hanmen or one em space to the right of the left edge. On the right page, the tail of the running heads or page numbers should be aligned either at the right edge of the kihon-hanmen or one full-width space to left of the right edge.

3. Regardless of the direction of text in a book, when arranging running heads and page numbers together on the same horizontal line, the space between the running head and the page number should be double or one and a half times the character size of the running head. On the left page, the page number should be set at the left side and the running head should be set at the right side. On right-hand pages, the page number should be set at the right side and the running head should be set at the left side. The exact positions of the page numbers are given by the instructions above (see b).

4. When positioning running heads and page numbers vertically to the fore-edge of the kihon-hanmen in a vertically set book (see spread (e) in , for example), the minimum horizontal distance from the kihon-hanmen should be the same as that of the line gap of the kihon-hanmen. The top of the running head should be positioned approximately four kihon-hanmen characters below the head, and the bottom of the page numbers should be positioned approximately five kihon-hanmen characters above the foot.

Principles of Arrangement of Running Heads and Page Numbers

Positioning of all running heads and page numbers in the same book should be consistent.

Because the start of a page will be on the recto side, the right-hand page of a spread in a vertically set book is always an even page and the left-hand page is always an odd page (see ). Likewise, the left-hand page of a spread in a horizontally set book is always an even page and the right-hand page is always an odd page (see ).

Ways of Arranging Running Heads and Page Numbers

There are two ways to arrange running heads. One is the single running head method and the other is the double running head method. (Arrangement of running heads is defined in JIS X 4051, sec. 7.6.2. Page Numbers are defined in sec. 7.5.2.).

• Double running head method: Place running heads on both even pages and odd pages (see ).

• Single running head method: Place running heads only on odd pages (see ).

1. In the double running head method, a higher-level title, such as that of the chapter or book, is used for the running heads on the even pages, and a lower-level title, such as that for a section, on the odd pages. Where there are no differing levels of titles, such as on the page containing the table of contents, the same running head is used on both even and odd pages.

2. In the single running head method, one of the headings between the top and third levels is used.

3. In principle, the contents of running heads will be the same as those of headings with the following differences:

   1. Numbers and words in Latin alphanumeric characters in vertically set headings in vertically set books should be changed to horizontal notation for horizontally set running heads (see ).

   2. If headings are too long, they should be made shorter by paraphrasing them in fewer characters. Running heads with too many characters will not look good.

   3. For certain publications, such as a collection of monographs, the names of authors may be added in parentheses at the end of the running head.

4. In principle, the text direction of running heads and page numbers should be the same as that of the kihon-hanmen. For vertically set books, however, it is more common to set running heads and page numbers horizontally.

5. In principle, for the single running head method running heads are printed on all odd pages, and for the double running head method on all even and odd pages. However, for the sake of appearance, running heads may be omitted as follows:

   1. Pages on which running heads should be hidden:

      1. Naka-tobira and han-tobira.

      2. Pages where a running head overlaps with other elements such as illustrations.

      3. Blank pages.

   2. Pages on which running heads may be hidden:

      1. Pages where a figure or a table is positioned adjacent to the running head.

      2. Pages with a heading right after a new recto or new page.

6. In principle, page numbers are printed on all pages. However, for the sake of appearance, they may be omitted as follows:

   1. Pages on which page numbers should be hidden:

      1. Pages on which a illustration or a table is positioned adjacent to the page number.

      2. Blank pages.

   2. Pages on which page numbers may be hidden:

      1. Divisional title and simplified divisional title pages.

      2. Pages in horizontally set books with a page number placed in the margin at the top of the page, and with a heading at the beginning of a new recto or new page. (In this case, it is also possible to move the page numbers to the center of the margin at the foot of the page.)

7. There are two types of page numbering. "Continuous pagination" means that page numbers continue throughout the whole book. "Independent pagination" means that page numbers start from "1" separately at beginning of the front matter and back matter. There is also, for example in manuals, the method of starting each chapter from page number "1". (In such cases, it is common that the name of the chapter is added as a prefix before the page number.)

Differences in Vertical and Horizontal Composition in Use of Punctuation Marks

There are some punctuation marks that are used uniquely in either vertical writing mode or horizontal writing mode. In this document, characters and symbols are treated as members of a character class, classified by their behavior for composition. Each class name is followed by class id, such as opening brackets (cl-01). Details are explained in . The following are some typical examples:

1. Full stops (cl-06) and commas (cl-07)

   1. In vertical writing mode, IDEOGRAPHIC FULL STOP "。" and IDEOGRAPHIC COMMA "、" are used for full stops (cl-06) and commas (cl-07).

   2. In horizontal writing mode, there are three conventions in choice of symbols for full stops (cl-06) and commas (cl-07):

      1. Using COMMA "，" and FULL STOP "．" (see ).

         

      2. Using COMMA "，" and IDEOGRAPHIC FULL STOP "。" (see ).

         

      3. Using IDEOGRAPHIC COMMA "、" and IDEOGRAPHIC FULL STOP "。" (see ).

         

2. LEFT CORNER BRACKET "「", RIGHT CORNER BRACKET "」", LEFT DOUBLE QUOTATION MARK "“" and RIGHT DOUBLE QUOTATION MARK "”"

   1. In vertical writing mode, LEFT CORNER BRACKET "「" and RIGHT CORNER BRACKET "」" are used for quotations (see ).

      

   2. In horizontal writing mode, pairs of LEFT DOUBLE QUOTATION MARK "“" and RIGHT DOUBLE QUOTATION MARK "”" or pairs of LEFT SINGLE QUOTATION MARK "‘" and RIGHT SINGLE QUOTATION MARK "’" may be used in place of LEFT CORNER BRACKET "「" and RIGHT CORNER BRACKET "」" (see ).

      

      

3. LEFT SQUARE BRACKET "［", RIGHT SQUARE BRACKET "］", LEFT TORTOISE SHELL BRACKET "〔" and RIGHT TORTOISE SHELL BRACKET "〕"

   LEFT TORTOISE SHELL BRACKET "〔" and RIGHT TORTOISE SHELL BRACKET "〕" are vertical variants of LEFT SQUARE BRACKET "［" and RIGHT SQUARE BRACKET "］", which are used in horizontal writing mode. Square brackets should be used in horizontal writing mode except for special cases.

Positioning of Punctuation Marks (Commas, Periods and Brackets)

The positioning of punctuation marks (commas, periods and brackets) in a line proceeds as follows.

The character advance of commas (cl-07), full stops (cl-06), opening brackets (cl-01), closing brackets (cl-02) and middle dots (cl-05) is half-width (half em). But when those punctuation marks are placed side-by-side with ideographic (cl-19), hiragana (cl-15), or katakana (cl-16) characters, in principle, a given amount of space will be inserted before or after the symbols, which makes them appear as if they were intrinsically full-width (one em) (see ). Space is inserted before and after middle dots (cl-05). This principle makes the symbols consistent with ideographic (cl-19), hiragana (cl-15) and katakana (cl-16) characters in character width, and at the same time the space for punctuation helps to make the organization of text clearer. The space size added before or after punctuation marks is subject, in principle, to line adjustment and may eventually be removed, except for that added after full stops (cl-06). (Details of line adjustment are discussed in ).

1. After commas (cl-07), a half em space is added, in principle.

2. After full stops (cl-06), in the middle of a line, a half em space is added. At the end of a line, a half em space is added, in principle.

3. Before opening brackets (cl-01), a half em space is added, in principle.

4. After closing brackets (cl-02), a half em space is added, in principle.

5. Before and after middle dots (cl-05), a quarter em space is added, in principle.

Exceptional Positioning of Ideographic Comma and Katakana Middle Dot

The space usually added after IDEOGRAPHIC COMMA "、" and the space before and after KATAKANA MIDDLE DOT "・" are omitted, in principle, for cosmetic reasons in the following cases.

1. In vertical writing mode, ideographic numerals and IDEOGRAPHIC COMMA "、" used as a decimal separator are set solid (as in the right line in ).

   

   

2. In vertical writing mode, ideographic digits and KATAKANA MIDDLE DOT "・" representing a decimal point are set solid (as in the right line in ).

   

Positioning of Consecutive Opening Brackets, Closing Brackets, Commas, Full Stops and Middle Dots

In cases where multiple punctuation marks, such as opening brackets (cl-01), closing brackets (cl-02), commas (cl-07), full stops (cl-06) and middle dots (cl-05), come one after the other, the following space adjustments are made for aesthetic reasons (see ). Note also that the half em and quarter em spaces added before or after punctuation marks, including the half em space after full stops (cl-06) appearing in the middle of a line, are subject, in principle, to line adjustment and may eventually be removed, except for those added after full stops (cl-06). (See for more about line adjustment.) For more information about the positioning of closing brackets (cl-02), full stops (cl-06), commas (cl-07) and middle dots (cl-05) at line end, see .

1. When closing brackets (cl-02) come immediately after commas (cl-07) or full stops (cl-06), remove the default half em space between them and, in principle, add a half em space after the closing brackets (see ①).

2. When commas (cl-07) come immediately after closing brackets (cl-02), remove the default half em space between them and, in principle, add a half em space after the comma. When full stops (cl-06) come immediately after closing brackets (cl-02), remove the default half em space between them and, in middle of a line, add a half em space after the full stop; at the end of a line, in principle, add a half em space after the full stop (see ②).

3. When opening brackets (cl-01) come immediately after commas (cl-07), in principle, add a half em space between them (see ③). When opening brackets (cl-01) come immediately after full stops (cl-06) in the middle of a line, add a half em space between them. Note that when full stops (cl-06) come in the bottom of lines, in principle, insert a half space after full stops (cl-06).

4. When opening brackets (cl-01) come immediately after closing brackets (cl-02), in principle, add a half em space between them (see ④).

5. When opening brackets (cl-01) come immediately after other opening brackets (cl-01), set them solid and, in principle, add a half em space before the first one (see ⑤).

6. When closing brackets (cl-02) come immediately after other closing brackets (cl-02), set them solid and, in principle, add a half em space after the last closing bracket (see ⑥).

7. When middle dots (cl-05) come immediately after closing brackets (cl-02), in principle, add a quarter em space before the following middle dot (see ⑦).

8. When opening brackets (cl-01) come immediately after middle dots (cl-05), in principle, add a quarter em space after the preceding middle dot (see ⑦).

The line adjustment rules shown above have been established because the default half em space before or after consecutive punctuation marks, or quarter em space before and after them, makes the line look sparse and doesn't make the line appear well-proportioned (see ).

Positioning of Opening Brackets at Line Head

When starting a new line with opening brackets (cl-01) there are some patterns as shown in . Note that the amount of line indent after the line feed (the first line indent of a new paragraph) is assumed to be a one em space across all the patterns.

1. The first line indent after the line feed is set full-width (one em) and the next line after the first line break starts with no space (so-called tentsuki) (see ①).

2. The first line indent after the line feed is set one and a half em and the next line indent after the first line break is set to a half em (see ②).

3. The first line indent after the line feed is set at a half em and the next line after the first line break is set tentsuki (see ③).

Positioning of Dividing Punctuation Marks (Question Mark and Exclamation Mark) and Hyphens

The dividing punctuation marks (cl-04) (QUESTION MARK "?" and EXCLAMATION MARK "!") should be full-width, and they are typeset as follows.

1. Basically, add no space before dividing punctuation marks (cl-04) at the end of a sentence and add a one em space after them (see ). However when a closing bracket (cl-02) follows right after the dividing punctuation mark, add no space after the dividing punctuation mark and add a half em space after the closing bracket (see ).

   

   

2. When dividing punctuation marks (cl-04) at the end of a sentence reach the end of a line, apply the following rules (see ).

   

   1. If the line length is 13 character widths and a dividing punctuation mark (cl-04) occurs in the 12th character position, a one em space should be appended after it.

   2. If the line length is 13 character widths and a dividing punctuation mark (cl-04) occurs in the 13th character position, no space should be appended after it. In addition, do not carry over the one em space usually appended after the dividing punctuation marks to the line head of the next line; the line in this case should be set tentsuki.

The character width of hyphens (cl-03) varies according to the type of hyphen. HYPHEN "‐" should be quarter em width (i.e. one quarter of an em width), EN DASH "–" and KATAKANA-HIRAGANA DOUBLE HYPHEN "゠" should be half-width (a half em width), WAVE DASH "〜" should be full-width. Basically there should be no space before and after hyphens (cl-03). However, a half em space should be appended, in principle, when opening brackets (cl-01) follow right after a hyphen (cl-03) and a quarter em space when middle dots (cl-05) follow a hyphen (cl-03).

Characters Not Starting a Line

In principle, no line should begin with closing brackets (cl-02), hyphens (cl-03), dividing punctuation marks (cl-04), middle dots (cl-05), full stops (cl-06), commas (cl-07), iteration marks (cl-09), a prolonged sound mark (cl-10), small kana (cl-11) or warichu closing brackets (cl-29) (line-start prohibition rule). Otherwise the line would have an odd appearance.

Characters Not Ending a Line

No line should end with opening brackets (cl-01) or warichu opening brackets (cl-28) (line-end prohibition rules). Otherwise the line would have an odd appearance.

Positioning of Closing Brackets, Full Stops, Commas and Middle Dots at Line End

In principle, closing brackets (cl-02), commas (cl-07) or full stops (cl-06) at the line end have a half em space after them (see ). This half em space can be deleted for line adjustment (for more about line adjustment, see ). However, the possibilities are only half em space or solid. Other spaces, such as a quarter em space should not be used. In principle, the middle dot (cl-05) character at the line end also has a quarter em space before and after, and is handled like a full-width character (see ). This quarter em space can also be deleted for line adjustment, namely middle dots (cl-05) can be set solid before and after (about line adjustment, see ). However, in this case also, the only possibilities are quarter em space or solid setting. Other intermediate-sized spacing should not be used.

Unbreakable Character Sequences

If the following characters and symbols appear in sequence there will be no line break between them. The reason is that these characters and symbols are to be handled as one unit.

1. Between a sequence of EM DASH "—" characters (to be more specific, for a double dash, see ). Note that some systems implement HORIZONTAL BAR "―" with very similar behavior to EM DASH "—".

   

2. Between sequences of HORIZONTAL ELLIPSIS "…" or TWO DOT LEADER "‥" (to be more specific, double HORIZONTAL ELLIPSIS "……" or double TWO DOT LEADER "‥‥").

   

3. Between European numerals (see , , and .). European numerals indicate ranks via the position of a numeral.

4. Between prefixed abbreviations (cl-12) (YEN SIGN "¥"，DOLLAR SIGN "$"，CENT SIGN "¢" etc.) and the following arabic or ideographic numeral (see ). The reason is that such character sequences are to be handled as one unit.

   

5. Between postfixed abbreviations (cl-13) (PERCENT SIGN "%", PER MILLE SIGN "‰" etc.) and the preceding European numeral or ideographic numeral (see ). The reason is that such character sequences are to be handled as one unit.

   

6. Inter-letter space among Western characters (cl-27) in a word (or, sequence of letters, which it is not possible to hyphenate), or unit indicators (km, kg, mm etc.) in Latin letters (see ).

   

7. Inter-letter space among ruby letters, when composed as mono-ruby. Note that it is possible to break a line between base characters with mono-ruby (see ).

8. Inter-letter space among ruby letters or base characters, composed as group-ruby (see ).

   

   

9. Between a subscript or superscript and an adjacent base character (preceding or following) (see ), or between base characters with ornament characters, or between ornament characters themselves. The reason is that these character sequences are to be handled as one object.

   

10. In order to create a correspondence between notes and the related main text, reference marks (aijirushi) are often added. Line breaks are not allowed before the reference mark or between letters of the reference mark itself (see ). The application of the no-line-break rule here is a matter of style.

    

11. After warichu opening brackets (cl-28), which open warichu, or before warichu closing brackets (cl-29), which close warichu.

12. A unit of furiwake. A unit of furiwake is handled as one object.

Character Sequences which Do Not Allow Space Insertion as Part of Line Adjustment Processing

For line adjustment processing, space must not be added between the following characters. (This is called the inseparable characters rule.) The reason is that these characters or symbols should appear as one unit (for more about line adjustment, see ).

1. There must be no space between any characters described in .

2. In addition to the cases mentioned above, the inseparable character rule has to be applied to the following cases.

   1. Before or after opening brackets (cl-01) or closing brackets (cl-02).

   2. Before or after full stops (cl-06) or commas (cl-07).

   3. Before or after middle dots (cl-05).

   4. Before or after dividing punctuation marks (cl-04).

   5. Before or after hyphens (cl-03).

   6. Before or after one em, etc. spaces between Japanese characters.

   7. Among base characters with jukugo-ruby.

Examples of Line Adjustment

Methods of line adjustment processing are discussed in . However, since layout processing of punctuation marks is one reason for the need for line adjustment processing, we will here introduce two main examples of cases where line adjustment processing is necessary, and show adjustment examples (see ).

1. The principal approach in Japanese composition is that with the exception of the last line of a paragraph, the length of all lines is the same, so all lines are aligned. As explained before, the line length is set to be n-times the character size established for the kihon-hanmen. Hence, as long as only full-width characters are used, all lines have the same length (see ① at ).

2. In at ②, there is an IDEOGRAPHIC COMMA "、" followed by a LEFT CORNER BRACKET "「", and the total space taken by the two characters is one and a half em. That means that the line overshoots or runs short of the edge of the kihon-hanmen by a half em. To restore a uniform line length, line adjustment is applied as shown at ③ in . The half em space overshoot or shortage is recovered by reducing inter-character space to a quarter em before the LEFT CORNER BRACKET "「" and after the RIGHT CORNER BRACKET "」".

3. At ④ in , the 15th character is an opening bracket (cl-01). This should not appear at the line end. Ideally, a full width space reduction would be applied, and the character "前" on the second line would be moved onto the first line in the 15th position. In that way, the problem could be avoided. However, in this example a full-width space reduction is not possible, so line adjustment processing is applied as shown at ⑤ in . The opening bracket (cl-01) is moved to the second line, and line adjustment by inter-character space expansion is applied. That means that space is inserted in the first line at places where it is allowed.

   

Composition of Japanese and Western Mixed Texts

There are a lot of examples of Japanese text in which Western and/or Greek letters are mixed among Japanese letters. Examples are as follows:

1. Using one Latin letter as a symbol for something, like "A" and "B".

2. Using a Western word in a Japanese context, like "editor".

3. Using acronyms of things and organization names, like "DTP" and "GDP".

4. Writing Western book titles and authors in lists of referred books with original spelling.

Latin letters are also used in itemized lists and numbering of headings, as well as symbols for units, symbols for chemical elements, and mathematical symbols. As can be judged from these examples, mixtures of Latin letters among Japanese letters are in daily use in Japanese composition.

Mixed Text Composition in Horizontal Writing Mode

In horizontal writing mode the basic approach is to use proportional Western fonts (). For European numerals, both half-width fonts and proportional fonts are used. Note that Western word space (cl-26) is a one third em space, in principle, except at line head, line head of warichu, line end and line end of warichu. Western word space (cl-26) at line head, line head of warichu, line end and line end of warichu, is set solid.

Mixed Text Composition in Vertical Writing Mode

As explained in , there are three different styles for setting Latin letters and European numerals in vertical writing mode:

1. Setting Latin letters and/or European numerals one by one in inline direction with Japanese characters (see ). Single Latin letters or Arabic numerals are set with this style. In this case, a full width monospace font is usually used. Currently, proportional Western style fonts are also sometimes used with this style.

   

2. Setting Latin letters and/or European numerals rotated 90 degrees clockwise in vertical text mode (). This style is usually adopted when Latin letters compose a word or sentence. Proportional fonts are specified for characters in this style, as in horizontal writing mode (or half-width fonts for European numerals).

   

3. Setting Latin letters and/or European numerals in tate-chu-yoko (horizontal-in-vertical setting, see ). Tate-chu-yoko layout is usually adopted when dealing with a two-digit number in European numerals, or a combination of two or three Latin letters, the length of which is equal to the default size of the line in paragraph direction or longer than that just to an acceptable extent. (A combination of two or three Latin letters may be rotated 90 degrees clockwise rather than set in tate-chu-yoko layout.) Proportional glyphs (or half-width glyphs for European numerals) are used for characters in tate-chu-yoko layout.

   

   

   

Method for Setting Full-width Latin Letters and European Numerals

When full-width and fixed-width Western characters or European numerals are set in vertical writing mode as "quasi" Japanese characters, inter-character spaces between these characters and hiragana (cl-15), katakana (cl-16) or ideographic characters (cl-19) are set solid, similar to ordinary ideographic characters (cl-19) (see ). Also, in principle, when full-width and fixed-width Western characters or European numerals are set after full stops (cl-06), commas (cl-07) or closing brackets (cl-02), or before opening brackets (cl-01), insert a half em space after commas (cl-07) or closing brackets (cl-02), or before opening brackets (cl-01). In addition, in these cases, insert a half em space after full stops (cl-06). When full-width and fixed-width Western characters or European numerals are set before a full stop (cl-06), comma (cl-07) or closing bracket (cl-02), or after an opening bracket (cl-01), the inter-character space before the full stop, comma or closing bracket, or after the opening bracket is set solid.

Handling of Tate-chu-yoko (Horizontal-in-Vertical Settings)

To set strings as tate-chu-yoko (horizontal-in-vertical setting), first set from left to right using solid setting, then align the whole string to the center of the vertical line (). When hiragana (cl-15), katakana (cl-16) or ideographic characters (cl-19) are set before/after tate-chu-yoko, the inter-character space is set solid. In principle, when tate-chu-yoko is set after a comma (cl-07) or closing bracket (cl-02), or before an opening bracket (cl-01), a half em space is inserted. In addition, when tate-chu-yoko is set after a full stop (cl-06) in the middle of a line, a half em space is inserted. When a full stop (cl-06) is set at the end of a line, a half em space is inserted after it, in principle. When tate-chu-yoko is set before full stops, commas or closing brackets, or after opening brackets, the inter-character space is set solid.

Handling of Western Text in Japanese Text using Proportional Western Fonts

Composition rules for Western characters, Western text and European numerals, set rotated 90 degrees clockwise in vertical writing mode, and horizontal writing mode, are as follows:

1. A sequence of Western characters in a Western word should not be broken across a line-break, except where hyphenation is allowed.

2. When line adjustment is done with line adjustment by inter-character space reduction, Western word space (cl-26) is used as first priority. Also, when line adjustment is done with line adjustment by inter-character space expansion, Western word spaces are used as first priority.

3. When line adjustment by inter-character space addition is used, inter-character spaces within Western words and European numerals are not used for expansion.

4. Inter-character space, between hiragana (cl-15), katakana (cl-16) or ideographic characters (cl-19) and Western characters or European numerals, is a quarter em space (see ). The issue as to whether the quarter em space can be used for line end adjustment or not is discussed in and .

   

   In the following cases, a quarter em space is not inserted (see ).

   1. At the start of a line, there is no space before Latin characters or European numerals. At the end of the line, there is no space after Latin characters or European numerals.

   2. In the case where Latin characters and European numerals follow a comma (cl-07) or closing bracket (cl-02), or are followed by opening brackets (cl-01), in principle, a half em space is inserted. In the case where Latin characters and European numerals follow a full stop (cl-06) in the middle of a line, a half em space is inserted. When the full stop (cl-06) is set at the end of a line, in principle, a half em space is inserted after the full stop (cl-06).

   3. In the case where Latin characters and European numerals are set before a full stop (cl-06), comma (cl-07) or closing bracket (cl-02), or after an opening bracket (cl-01), the inter-character space is set solid.

Usage of Ruby

Ruby is a small-sized, supplementary text attached to a character or a group of characters in the main text. A run of ruby text, usually attached to the right of the characters in vertical writing mode or immediately above them in horizontal writing mode, indicates the reading or the meaning of those characters (see ). The characters in the main text that are annotated by ruby are called "base characters". Mainly Hiragana (cl-15) characters are often used for ruby to indicate how to read ideographic characters (cl-19); this is known as ruby annotation or as "furigana".

There are three methods to treat ruby as follows:

1. Mono-ruby : ruby letters are set in connection with each base character (see ).

2. Jukugo-ruby : ruby letters are set not only in connection with each base character but also treated as a group as kanji compound word (see and ).

3. Group-ruby : The connection between ruby letters and base characters is treated as group-to-group (see ).

Because of different purposes and different functionalities, there are several complicated methods for ruby as follows:

1. PURPOSE: Ruby annotation with kana (usually hiragana (cl-15)) to provide readings of ideographic characters (cl-19). There are two types of ruby for this purpose depending on the type of base character:

   1. Add one or more hiragana (cl-15) ruby character to indicate the reading (Japanese onyomi or kunyomi) for each base ideographic character (cl-19) (see ). This method, attaching one or several hiragana or katakana characters for each base ideographic character, is called mono-ruby.

      

   2. In the Japanese writing system, kanji compound words (jukugo) occasionally appear, usually constructed with a couple of ideographic characters (cl-19). There are two different methods of attaching ruby letters to base ideographic characters (cl-19) for these compound words.

      1. Mono-ruby. Ruby letters are attached to each base ideographic character (cl-19), similarly to the previous section (see ).

         

      2. Jukugo-ruby. Pronunciation is indicated for each ideographic character (cl-19), but the positioning takes into account the fact that together they make up a compound word (see ). The intention when using jukugo-ruby is to handle the ideographic character (cl-19) phrase as one object.

         

         

         

2. PURPOSE: Ruby annotation that annotates a ideographic character (cl-19) or hiragana (cl-15) word with katakana (cl-16) to provide its meaning, together with it's reading. In terms of ruby layout, attaching ruby text to a single character in ideographic character (cl-19) is essentially the same as attaching the reading to a ideographic character (cl-19) (e.g. attaching ruby text "バザール", 'Bazaar', in hiragana (cl-15) or katakana (cl-16) to a ideographic character (cl-19) "市" is just like attaching the reading "いち" to that character). When attaching katakana (cl-16) ruby text to a run of base text consisting of two or more characters in ideographic character (cl-19) and/or hiragana (cl-15), the ruby text needs to be positioned as if it corresponds to the annotated text itself, no matter how the ruby characters are distributed across each base character. The most typical example of this is attaching ruby text to a kanji compound word to indicate a corresponding loan word in katakana (see ). The use of ruby text of this kind is on the increase in proportion to the growing need for translations and loan words. This type of ruby, namely ruby letters that are attached to two or more base characters as one object (note that ruby characters are not limited to katakana (cl-16). and ), is called group-ruby. Group-ruby and it's base characters are unbreakable, because of their behavior as one object (it is possible to break a line in the middle of the base characters where jukugo-ruby is in use).

   

3. PURPOSE: Ruby annotation, usually with katakana (cl-16) characters, to indicate the reading or the meaning of a Western word used in base text (see ). There are opposite cases where a synonymous Western word in Latin characters is attached as a ruby annotation to a Japanese word in ideographic character (cl-19) or hiragana (cl-15) and so on (see ). These cases are less used than a and b, however they are quite common in study guides, translated books and travel guides.

   

4. PURPOSE: Ruby annotation using ideographic character (cl-19) for a base text word in hiragana (cl-15). This is called furikanji, and is very rarely found.

Hereafter, mainly the usage of (a) and (b) will be explained.

Choice of Base Characters to be Annotated by Ruby

There are several methods of choosing how to attach ruby annotations to which base characters.

1. 'General-ruby' is the method of attaching ruby annotations to all base characters in ideographic character (cl-19).

2. 'Para-ruby' is the method of attaching ruby annotations to only those base characters in ideographic character (cl-19) for which readings are difficult.

Note that ruby should be attached to all ideographic characters (cl-19) in a compound word, to reflect the unitary nature of the text. To attach ruby to only some of the ideographic characters (cl-19) in a compound word is not recommended (see ).

Choice of Size for Ruby Characters

The character size of ruby characters is, in principle, the half size of the base characters (see ).

The 'one-third-ruby' characters are used on rare occasions to attach three ruby characters to one full-width ideographic character (cl-19). One-third-ruby for vertical layout has the dimension of the half of the base character in width and the one third in height. Those for horizontal writing mode have the dimension of half of the base characters in height and one third in width (see ).

When ruby is attached to twelve point or larger base characters (usually used for headings), the size of the ruby letter is generally smaller than half the size of the base characters, considering the proportion of the sizes of base characters and ruby. When all is said and done, these cases are very rare.

Choice of Sides for Ruby with Respect to Base Characters

In principle, ruby is attached to the right of base characters in vertical writing mode, and above in horizontal writing mode.

In some special cases, ruby can be seen to the left of base characters in vertical writing mode, and below in horizontal writing mode, but this is very rare.

There are cases where two kinds of ruby are attached, one to either side of the base characters, one for readings and the other for meanings (see ). This is also very rare.

In the following sections, the ruby composition methods will be explained on the assumption that the size of ruby is half the size of the base characters, and they will be attached to the right in vertical writing mode and above in horizontal writing mode. First we look at the basic composition rules of mono-ruby, group-ruby and jukugo-ruby, then the rules of positioning of ruby with respect to those characters which come before and after the base characters, and finally the composition rules at the line head and at the line end.

Positioning of Mono-ruby with Respect to Base Characters

When mono-ruby characters are Japanese, they are set solid. If mono-ruby characters have their own character widths such as Western characters or European numerals, they are set according to their own widths and then the ruby text is placed so that its center matches that of its base character. There are more variations depending on the combination of the base character and ruby text and accordingly various composition rules have been invented, which will be explained with examples.

When attaching two hiragana (cl-15) ruby characters to a single base character, the lengths of the ruby text and the base text are the same and they are positioned as shown in .

When attaching a single hiragana (cl-15) ruby character to a single base character, there are two ways of positioning the ruby character.

1. In vertical writing mode, attach a ruby character so that its vertical center matches that of the base character (see ). In horizontal writing mode, attach a ruby character so that its horizontal center matches that of the base character (see ). This positioning of a ruby character is called 'nakatsuki' (center-alignment).

   

2. In vertical writing mode, attach a ruby character so that the top of its virtual body is aligned with the top of that of the base character (see ). This positioning of a ruby character is called 'katatsuki' (top-alignment). For horizontal writing mode, 'katatsuki' should not be adopted. If a ruby character is attached so that the left-edge of its virtual body is aligned with the left-edge of that of the base character, it would result in the loss of the center of balance, which doesn't look good (see ).

   

When attaching three or more hiragana (cl-15) ruby characters to a single base character, the ruby characters are set solid. In this case, where the length of a ruby text is longer than that of its base character, positioning of the ruby text depends on which alignment has been adopted for a single ruby character. There is another issue: how to maintain the spatial balance of the ruby characters hanging over those characters which are not related base characters. The adjustment of inter-character spacing for those characters which come before and after the base character will be explained in 3.3.8 Adjustments of Ruby with Length Longer than that of the Base Characters.

1. When nakatsuki alignment is adopted for a single ruby character, position a ruby text so that its vertical center is aligned with that of its base character in vertical writing mode (see ). In horizontal writing mode, position a ruby text so that its horizontal center is aligned with that of its base character (see ).

   

2. When katatsuki alignment is adopted for a single ruby character, there are two methods, as follows.

   1. Position the ruby text so that its vertical center is aligned with that of its base character (see ).

   2. Depending on the type of script of the adjacent characters to the base character, and the number of ruby characters, a decision is made about whether ruby hangover is allowed on the character before its base character, or on the character after, or on both adjacent characters. At break-even situation, the hangover is usually on the character after its base character (see ).

For mono-ruby, base characters and attached ruby characters are handled as one object, and internal line-breaks are prohibited.

Positioning of Group-ruby with Respect to Base Characters

When the length of a sequence of base characters (number of characters * advance-width of each character) and that of the ruby text are the same, each text is set solid and the center of both texts are aligned with each other (see ).

When the length of the ruby text is shorter than that of its base characters, set the base text solid and attached ruby character, so that both texts balance each other. To be more specific, where 2 units of inter-character space are used between ruby characters, add 1 unit of space between the start of the base text and the start of the ruby text, and between the end of the ruby text and the end of the base text. This will give a balanced appearance, and is the method specified in JIS X 4051 (see ). Another way is to first align the leading characters for both the base text and ruby text and the ends of both trailing characters, and then add the same amount of inter-character space between the rest of the ruby characters (see ).

When the length of the ruby text is longer than that of the base characters, balance the base characters with the ruby text by setting the ruby text solid and adding a certain amount of inter-character space between each adjacent base character. To be more specific, for 2 units of inter-character space, add 1 unit of space between the start of the ruby text and the start of the base text, and between the end of the base text and the end of the ruby text, as specified in JIS X 4051 (see ). Another way is to first align the start of both the leading characters and the end of the trailing characters, and then add a certain amount of inter-character space between each adjacent base character (see ).

For group-ruby, base characters and attached ruby characters are handled as one object, and internal line-breaks are prohibited. Also, for an object constructed with base characters and attached ruby characters it is prohibited to insert additional spaces between each character for line adjustment.

Positioning of Jukugo-ruby with Respect to Base Characters

If the number of ruby characters are two or less for each ideographic characters (cl-19) which participates in a kanji compound word (or jukugo), then for each run of ruby text associated with each base character, compose ruby characters as described in (see ).

If there is any ideographic character (cl-19) in a given kanji compound word which needs three or more ruby characters, the jukugo-ruby layout cannot be used. In this case, attach the ruby text to the kanji compound word as a whole. The available methods include the layout as specified in JIS X 4051, which is similar to the group-ruby method described in (see ), and layout decided by the phonetic structure of the kanji compound word and the type of script of the adjacent characters (see ). The latter method can be used unless a run of ruby text for the base character hangs over another base character more than a full character width (or one and a half times the full-width) of a ruby character. (The detail of this method is described in .)

Jukugo-ruby can be split into two lines at the boundary of each unit of ruby text attached to one ideographic character (cl-19). When a kanji compound word consists of two characters, each unit will be processed using the mono-ruby method. When dividing a compound word that consists of three ideographic characters (cl-19), use the mono-ruby method for the first ideographic character (cl-19) and use the jukugo-ruby method for the remaining two ideographic characters (cl-19), and vice versa. In order to maintain the correspondence of each ideographic character (cl-19) to its ruby annotation, the layout of the ruby may be different after the division (see ). Note that jukugo-ruby and its base characters cannot be the subject of inter-character space expansion for line adjustment.

Adjustments of Ruby with Length Longer than that of the Base Characters

When the length of any ruby text is shorter than that of the base characters, the main text can be just set solid because there is no need for any adjustment of the inter-character spacing between base characters and their adjacent characters in the main text.

When the length of the ruby text is longer than that of the base characters, the method of composing the main text depends on how much the ruby text hangs over the ideographic character (cl-19), hiragana (cl-15) or punctuation marks, which are attached to the base characters. The following are the general rules (see and ). They were established especially in order to avoid misreading and to maintain the beauty of the layout. Noted that the detailed value of spaces between characters for cases of ruby letters hanging over the base characters is described in "Appendix B Spacing between Characters" as Table 1 in accordance with 3.9 About Character Classes.

1. Ruby text shall not hang over the ideographic characters (cl-19) adjacent to the base characters.

2. When the adjacent character is a hiragana (cl-15), katakana (cl-16), prolonged sound mark (cl-10) or small kana (cl-11), the ruby text may overhang the character up to the full-width size of the ruby characters.

   

   

3. The ruby letter may go over the base characters and overhang the half em spaces which are inserted after closing brackets (cl-02), full stops (cl-06) or commas (cl-07), set before the target ruby object, up to the full-width size of a ruby letter. Also, the ruby letter may go over the base characters and hang over the half em spaces which are inserted before opening brackets (cl-01), set after the target ruby object, up to the full -width size of a ruby letter. Note that when the half em spaces are reduced for line adjustment, the room for ruby letter overhang is also compressed to the reduced space size. (For example, if the space is a quarter em in the base character size, the ruby letter can overhang by a half em in ruby letter size.)

4. When the adjacent character is an inseparable character (cl-08), the ruby text may overhang the character up to the full-width size of a ruby character.

5. When the adjacent character is one of the middle dots (cl-05), the ruby text may overhang the middle dots, in principle, up to the full-width size of a ruby character. But if there is any reduction of space size before and after the middle dots as a result of the line adjustment, the amount of the extension shall be up to the amount of space size after the middle dots plus 1/2 a ruby character size when the middle dots are set before the ruby object, or the space size before the middle dots plus 1/2 a ruby character size when the middle dots are set after the ruby object.

6. When the adjacent character is one of the closing brackets (cl-02), the ruby text may go over the base characters up to the full-width size of a ruby character. Note that the overhang must not go beyond the closing bracket itself.

7. When the adjacent character is a comma (cl-07) or full stop (cl-06), the ruby text may go over the base characters and overhang the comma or full stop up to the full-width size of a ruby character. Note that the overhang must not go beyond the comma or the period itself.

8. Also, when the adjacent character is one of the opening brackets (cl-01) before the ruby object, the ruby text may go over the base characters and hang over the opening brackets up to the full-width size of a ruby character. Note that the overhang must not go beyond the opening brackets.

When the line head starts with ruby annotated text where the ruby text length is shorter than that of the base characters, compose the text so that the first base character is aligned with the line head. Similarly, when ruby annotated text ends at the line end and the ruby length is shorter than that of the basic characters, compose the text so that the last basic character is aligned with the line end.

When the line head starts with ruby annotated text where the ruby text length is longer than that of the base characters, compose the text so that the first ruby character which overhangs the base text is aligned with the line head, and vice versa (see ). Alternatively, there is a variation by which the text is composed so that the first base character is aligned with the line head, and vice versa (see ).

When aligning the first base character to the line head and the last base character to the line end, ruby text is not allowed to extend beyond the hanmen or the area of the column. If it does, the following adjustments should be considered in positioning base characters and ruby characters.

1. Mono-ruby at the line head: Make adjustments so that the top of the ruby text is aligned with that of the base characters (see ).

2. Mono-ruby at the line end: Make adjustments so that the bottom of the ruby text is aligned with that of the last base character (see ).

3. Group-ruby at the line head: Make adjustments so that the top of the ruby text is aligned with that of the first base character, and add the same amount of inter-character space between the base characters and between the end of the last base character and the end of the last ruby character after the last base character (the method specified in JIS X 4051) (see ).

   

4. Group-ruby at the line end: Make adjustments so that the end of the ruby text is aligned with that of the last base character and add the same amount of inter-character space between the base characters and the space between the start of the base text and the start of the ruby text (the method specified in JIS X 4051) (see ).

5. Jukugo-ruby at the line head or at the line end: Make the same adjustments as described in (c) or (d) for the group-ruby.

6. Jukugo-ruby at the line head: Make adjustments so that the top of the ruby text is aligned with that of the first base character. A run of ruby characters for a base character may overhang the adjacent base characters of the same kanji compound word, up to the full-width size (or one and a half of it) of a ruby character. If the extension should go beyond the limit, just force the ruby text out of the base characters, or make a further adjustment by adding inter-character space between the base characters.

7. Jukugo-ruby at the line end: Make adjustments so that the end of the ruby text is aligned with that of the last base character. A run of ruby characters for a base character may overhang the adjacent base characters of the same kanji compound word, up to the full-width size (or one and a half of it) of the ruby characters. If the extension should go beyond the limit, just force the ruby text out of the base characters, or make a further adjustment by adding inter-character space between the base characters.

8. Jukugo-ruby split across two lines: jukugo-ruby can be split across two lines, with one part at the line end and the other at the line head. In the case of a compound word with two ideographic characters (cl-19), it is as the same as dealing with one ideographic character (cl-19) with a mono-ruby text at the line end and the other ideographic characters (cl-19) with another mono-ruby text at the next line head. In the case of a phrase with three ideographic characters (cl-19), handle one ideographic character (cl-19) with mono-ruby text and the remaining two ideographic characters (cl-19) with jukugo-ruby, and vice versa. The layout of one ideographic character (cl-19) with mono-ruby text will be composed by method (a) or (b) described above. The layout of two ideographic characters (cl-19) with jukugo-ruby text will be composed by method (f) or (g) above.

Composition of Emphasis Dots

Emphasis dots (also known as bouten or side dots) are symbols placed alongside a run of ideographic character (cl-19) or hiragana (cl-15) characters to emphasize the text.

Composition of emphasis dots is as follows (see ).

1. The character size of emphasis dots is the half size of the base characters to be emphasized.

2. Emphasis dots are attached to the right of the base characters in vertical writing mode, or above them in horizontal writing mode. The center of emphasis dots is aligned with that of the base characters.

3. There are many symbols that could be specified for use as emphasis dots. SESAME DOT "﹅" in vertical writing mode and BULLET "•" in horizontal writing mode are those used for emphasis dots in general.

Where the Inline Cutting Note (Warichu) is used

Warichu (inline cutting note) is a type of inline notation, where two lines of small characters are inserted into the text. Warichu divides a line into two sub lines. The frequency of use of the inline cutting note is not so high. However, the inline cutting note is very important for study guides, travel guides, reference books, encyclopedias and manuals, because it is very effective for inserting notes at the point in the text where they are needed (see ). Inline cutting note is usually used in vertical writing mode. It is very infrequently used in horizontal writing mode.

Character Size for Inline Cutting Notes and Line Gaps

Character size for an inline cutting note depends on the character size established for the kihon-hanmen. Usually, around six point size is used (see ).

The space between adjacent lines in an inline cutting note is zero, that is to say, there is no line gap between them (see ).

As shown in , an inline cutting note usually has two lines, and is surrounded by LEFT PARENTHESIS "(" and RIGHT PARENTHESIS ")" characters that are double the size of the characters in the inline cutting note itself. There is no space between the surrounding text and parentheses for the inline cutting note.

Symbols, like opening brackets (cl-01), closing brackets (cl-02), commas (cl-07) and full stops (cl-06) are also used in inline cutting note text. In such cases, the handling of such symbols is the same as for the main text.

In vertical text, the horizontal width of the inline cutting note area is wider than the width of a kihon-hanmen line. The horizontal centers of the kihon-hanmen line and inline cutting note area are aligned. The line gap used to establish the kihon-hanmen should not be affected by the horizontal width of the inline cutting note area. In other words, the line gap for the kihon-hanmen needs to be designed wider than usual in preparation for the use of the inline cutting note. (see and ) Warichu is used also in horizontal text, however it is not so common, and usually occurs only in study guides and encyclopedias.

The length of the two lines of the inline cutting note should be as near as possible the same. When the inline cutting note can be set in one kihon-hanmen line, the whole inline note text should be broken at a position where line breaking is permitted, and where the two resulting lines are as close as possible to the same length. The length of the second line should not be longer than the length of the first line. Note that the same line breaking rules are used as for basic text (see ).

Handling an Inline Cutting Note when it Straddles Two Kihon-hanmen Lines

When an inline cutting note will not fit on a single kihon-hanmen line, it will wrap onto the following line, and will be set as shown in or .

Line Head Indent at the Beginning of Paragraphs

A paragraph, a section of a document which consists of one or more sentences to indicate a distinct idea, usually begins on a new line. For the related line head indent at the beginning of paragraphs (in JIS 4051, this is called the "paragraph line head indent") the following methods are available. The amount of space used for the indentation is, in principle, one em space using the character size in the paragraph.

1. Line head indent at the beginning of paragraphs is applied to all paragraphs. Nearly all books and magazines make use of this method (see ).

   

   

   

2. Line head indent at the beginning of paragraphs is not applied for any paragraph at all, and the tentsuki position is used (see ). There are examples of this method being used in certain books and magazines for the sake of styling, but this is rather hard to read.

   

3. In principle, line head indent is applied at the beginning of a paragraph. However, a paragraph immediately following a tentsuki-set heading is also set tentsuki, so that the beginning of the heading and the paragraph are aligned (see ). In some books and magazines this method is applied to text in horizontal writing mode.

   

On the other hand, for example with itemization, there is also the method that indents the second and following lines of the paragraph (see ). This is the so-called "questions and answer" (Q&A) form. It has the effect that numbers (if used) stand out.

3.5.2 Line Head Indent and Line End Indent

The line head indent is the indentation of the line head by a fixed amount, starting from the line head side of the hanmen (in the case of one column) or of the column area (in the case of several columns). In contrast, the indentation of the line end position by a fixed amount, starting from the line head, is called line end indent.

There are examples of line head indent for quotations in separate lines (see ) or for headings in separate lines. Line end indent is used, for example, for headings or for quotations in separate lines.

Single Line Alignment Processing

The Japanese "single line alignment method" is a process for setting alignment for a run of text that is shorter than a given line length. This method is frequently used for headings and poems. The following methods are available (see ).

1. Centering: The space between adjacent characters is, in principle, set solid. (If space is needed between Japanese text and western text, before opening brackets (cl-01) and after closing brackets (cl-02), that space is inserted based on the table in .) Also, if there is an explicit instruction to insert spaces, such spaces are inserted. If there is not solid setting but a fixed space between characters, this is used; the amount of space at the line head and line end is made equal, and the center of the character sequence is unified with the center of the line.

2. Line head alignment: The space between adjacent characters is, in principle, set solid. (If space is needed between Japanese text and western text, before opening brackets (cl-01) and after closing brackets (cl-02), that space is inserted based on the table in .) Also, if there is an explicit instruction to insert spaces, such spaces are inserted. If there is not solid setting but a fixed space between characters, this is used; the start of the character sequence is unified with the line head, and if the line is not full, the line end is kept empty.

3. Line end alignment: The space between adjacent characters is, in principle, set solid. (If space is needed between Japanese text and western text, before opening brackets (cl-01) and after closing brackets (cl-02), that space is inserted based on the table in .) Also, if there is an explicit instruction to insert spaces, such spaces are inserted. If there is not solid setting but a fixed space between characters, this is used; the end of the character sequence is unified with the line end, and if the line is not full, the line head is kept empty.

4. Even inter-character spacing: The space between adjacent characters is, in principle, set solid. (If space is needed between Japanese text and western text, before opening brackets (cl-01) and after closing brackets (cl-02), that space is inserted based on the table in .) Also, if there is an explicit instruction to insert spaces, such spaces are inserted. In addition, using the space made available during line adjustment processing, equal character spacing is applied where possible. The start of the character sequence is aligned to the position of the line head, and the end of the character sequence to the position of the line end.

Widow Adjustment of Paragraphs

The intent of widow adjustment of paragraphs is to avoid that the last line of a paragraph contains less than a given number of characters. This is also called "widow" processing.

Usage of Tab Setting

Tab setting is useful for alignment of table data, itemized lists, etc. where a series of characters need to be set at specific alignment positions within a line (see ).

For tab setting, it is necessary to identify tab positions, tab types (how to align the characters in the tab position), and the characters to be set. For this purpose, it is necessary to insert a tab sign before the tabbed character. The series of characters just after the tab sign are the target characters (see ). If there is more than one tab sign, it is necessary to set the same numbers of tab positions and tab types as the number of tab signs.

Types of Tab Settings

There are the following types of tab setting to align texts.

1. Start alignment tab setting: the start position of the text is aligned to the tab position (see ).

   

2. End alignment tab setting: the end position of the text is aligned to the tab position (see ).

   

3. Center alignment tab setting: the center of the text is aligned to the tab position (see )．

   

4. Alignment with a specified character tab setting: the start position of a specified character or sign (for example, a period) in the text is aligned to the tab position (see ).

   

The Method of Setting the Target Text

Set the text from the line head to the position before the tab sign in the first tab position, set the text from the first tab sign to the next tab sign in the second tab position, and so on. The behavior of opening brackets (cl-01) and closing brackets (cl-02), etc. is same as for the main text.

Following are some examples. The behavior of text before and after the tab positions are very difficult to anticipate, so it is necessary to design using trial and error.

1. If the target string is the first series of the line, the characters should be set in the first tab position from the start of the line, and so on, one after another (see ).

   

2. If the target string of text is too long to be set before the next tab position and overflows, the next string of text is aligned to the tag position after the end of the preceding string (see ).

   

3. If the beginning of the string overlaps with the end of the preceding string as the result of the tab setting indication, the following string is set just after the preceding string (see ).

   

4. If there is no tab position corresponding to the target string, the string should be set from the tab position of the next line, and so forth (see ).

   

Superscripts and Superscripts

Superscripts and subscripts are small letters associated with base characters, and typically used to indicate SI unit symbols, or used for mathematical or chemical formulae.

Superscripts and subscripts are usually set after the base character, with some exceptions for chemical formulae (which appear before the base character). They should be set solid.

For examples of superscripts and subscripts see . In this document, superscripts and subscripts and their base characters are handled as ornamented character complex (cl-21) characters.

JIS X 4051 specifies the character size and the block direction positioning of superscripts and subscripts alongside the base character to be implementation definable parameters. However it is recommended that the size of superscripts and subscripts are around 60% of the base character, depending on the size of the base character.

It is prohibited to break lines within an ornamented character complex (cl-21) sequence. Also, it is prohibited to use inter-character spacing within an ornamented character complex (cl-21) sequence for line adjustment.

Furiwake Processing

Furiwake is a typesetting style for setting multiple phrases or sentences in the middle of a line. Furiwake is also used to indicate options (see ). Study guides, manuals and reference books sometimes use furiwake. In many furiwake styles, multiple lines are indicated with opening brackets (cl-01) and closing brackets (cl-02), etc.

Furiwake is usually done as follows (see ). In this document, the lines which combine to make the furiwake are called furiwake-gyou.

1. The character size of the furiwake-gyou is usually the same as that of the base paragraph. Sometimes, the furiwake-gyou is a little bit smaller than the size of the base paragraph. Sometimes, the font style of the furiwake-gyou is different typeface the style of the base paragraph.

2. In the same furiwake block, the top positions of all the furiwake-gyou lines are aligned.

3. The line length of the furiwake block is the line length of the longest furiwake-gyou. However, it is permitted to indicate the length of the furiwake block, and break the furiwake-gyou lines. In this style, the start positions of the broken lines should be explicitly indicated. When there are line break marks in the furiwake-gyou, the line is broken in the indicated places. In this style, the start positions of the wrapped lines are aligned to the first line. The space between wrapped lines should be set solid.

4. The line-feed space of each furiwake block should be explicitly indicated.

5. The center line of the furiwake block should be aligned with the center line of the main text.

6. When the furiwake block is enclosed by opening brackets (cl-01) and closing brackets (cl-02), etc. the width of brackets should be the same as the width of the furiwake block.

7. One furiwake block should be set per base text line. One furiwake block should not be extended across multiple base text lines.

The size of the line-feed space of the paragraph which contains the furiwake block, should be explicitly indicated. The space should be decided by considering the content of the furiwake block, and may therefore differ from the size of the line-feed space of kihon-hanmen.

In general, the width of the furiwake block is larger than the width of an inline cutting note block. However, unlike in the case of the inline cutting block, the whole furiwake block should be set inside of the kihon-hanmen, or a column of the kihon-hanmen Setting a furiwake block that extends beyond the border of the kihon-hanmen is prohibited.

Jidori Processing

In cases such as lists of names of Japanese people, the length of some part of the text may be explicitly defined. In such cases, different numbers of characters are set, using adjustment of the inter-character spacing, so that they are all aligned to the same length. This is called jidori processing (see ).

Sometimes, in horizontal writing mode, text in running heads (with the exception of chapter and section numbers) are set using jidori processing. For example, three to six characters are set in a 7 character space (based on the size of the characters in the running head (see ). Two characters are set in a 6 character space to avoid too much space. Seven characters are set solid in a seven character space, and eight or more characters are set solid in a space of eight or more characters. This rule can be applied to other numbers of characters, such as five, six and eight.

Jidori processing should be done as follows:

1. The length for the jidori processing should be defined as a whole number of full-width characters at the size defined for the surrounding text.

2. The jidori text should be adjusted using spacing between characters so that the sides of the text are aligned at the defined length. The following, however, should be set solid:

   1. Positions where line breaks are prohibited: inter-character spaces between European numerals; between two EM DASH "—" characters; between two TWO DOT LEADER "‥" characters; between two HORIZONTAL ELLIPSIS "…" characters; and so on. These sequences should be treated as a single block.

      

   2. Where Western word space (cl-26) or full-width ideographic space (cl-14) are inserted, add the same space as for other inter-character spaces to the value of the Western word space or the full-width ideographic space.

3. If there is only one character, it should be aligned to the left of the jidori block.

Processing of Math Symbols and Math Operators

Math symbols and math operators, such as EQUALS SIGN "=", APPROXIMATELY EQUAL TO OR THE IMAGE OF "≒", PLUS SIGN "+" and MINUS SIGN "−" are commonly used not only for scientific and technical documents but also for ordinary books. In the Japanese composition system, there are two different groups of math symbols, which are each treated differently. So in this document math symbols are classified into two different classes; math symbols (cl-17) and math operators (cl-18).

Composition rules for math symbols (cl-17) and math operators (cl-18) are as follows:

1. The width of math symbols (cl-17) and math operators (cl-18) is full-width, i.e. one em (see ).

2. The inter-character space between math symbols (cl-17) or math operators (cl-18) and before and after adjacent characters, such as grouped numerals (cl-24), Western characters (cl-27), and ornamented character complex (cl-21) in one line is set solid (see ). However, when the top and/or the bottom of the mathematical formula is grouped numerals (cl-24) or Western characters (cl-27), the space between ideographic characters (cl-19), hiragana (cl-15) and katakana (cl-16) is quarter em space.

   

   

3. When math formulae or chemical formulae are set in one independent line, the inter-character space between math symbols (cl-17) and adjacent grouped numerals (cl-24), Western characters (cl-27) and ornamented character complex (cl-21) is quarter em. Also, when math formulae or chemical formulae are set in an individual line, the inter-character space between math operators (cl-18) and adjacent grouped numerals (cl-24), Western characters (cl-27) or ornamented character complex (cl-21) is set solid.

   

   

4. A line can be broken between math symbols (cl-17) or math operators (cl-18) and adjacent grouped numerals (cl-24), Western characters (cl-27) or ornamented character complex (cl-21).

Necessity for Line Adjustment

Line adjustment processing is applied where inter-character adjustments are needed to bring the line end into the correct alignment, e.g. because of line wrap or other reasons. Within a paragraph, lines are created by separating character sequences at places where line breaking is not prohibited. Except for the end of the last line of a paragraph, it is necessary to set the head and end of each line at predicable, aligned positions. For the last line of the paragraph, it is still necessary to set the head at the aligned position, however the line end need not aligned to the other alignment position. To achieve this, only inter-character spacing indicated in the table of , or explicitly chosen space sizes, are inserted, and other inter-character spaces are set solid.

There are various reasons for line adjustment processing. Examples of the most important ones will be given below.

1. Mixed use of characters and symbols (e.g. grouped numerals (cl-24) or Western characters (cl-27)) where not all characters are full-width (see ).

   

2. Sequences of punctuation marks. For example, a sequence of a closing bracket (cl-02) and a full stop (cl-06) takes one and a half em spaces together (see ). However, if an opening bracket (cl-01) follows immediately after the full stop, these punctuation marks will need two em size spaces together. Hence, no adjustment is needed to correctly align the line end (see ).

   

3. Mixtures of characters with different sizes (see ).

   

4. Cases where line head wrapping, line end wrapping or unbreakable character sequences should not be broken (see ).

Reduction and Addition of Inter-Character Space

Line adjustment processing targets places with a predefined space size or solid setting. Methods for line adjustment are as follows.

1. Line adjustment by inter-character space reduction. This means that a half em space is reduced after commas (cl-07) or closing brackets (cl-02), or before opening brackets (cl-01), and Western word space (cl-26) is reduced within a defined limit.

2. Line adjustment by inter-character space expansion. Line adjustment by inter-character space expansion means expanding inter-character space for line adjustment, where inter-character space is allowed to be extended up to a defined limit, such as for Western word space (cl-26) or other places where it is not prohibited to extend inter-character space.

Normally line adjustment by inter-character space reduction is preferred. Only when there are no spaces that can be reduced is line adjustment by inter-character space expansion applied. The reason for the preference of line adjustment by inter-character space reduction comes from the thinking that characters in solid setting should not have more inter character space, if at all possible.

Procedures for Inter-Character Space Reduction

For line adjustment by inter-character space reduction decisions must first be made about the preferred order in which reduction processing options are applied, and the maximum amount of space reduction needed. Inter-character space reduction is processed with following priorities.

1. Western word space (cl-26), which is usually one third em, is reduced by equal amounts, to leave a minimum of a quarter em space between words. The same space reduction is applied to all spaces on the target line at the same time.

2. The half em space after closing brackets (cl-02),commas (cl-07) and full stops (cl-06) at the end of a line, is deleted and set solid.

3. The quarter em spaces both before and after the middle dots (cl-05) are deleted and set solid.

4. The quarter em space before or after middle dots (cl-05), in the middle of a line, is reduced equally with proportional character size as far as solid setting.

5. The half em spaces before opening brackets (cl-01) or after closing brackets (cl-02) or commas (cl-07), in the middle of a line, are reduced equally with proportional character size, as far as solid setting.

6. The quarter em space between Japanese text (hiragana (cl-15), katakana (cl-16) and ideographic characters (cl-19)) and Latin script text (grouped numerals (cl-24), Western characters (cl-27) and unit symbols (cl-25)), is reduced equally with proportional character size, as far as one eighth em space.

In JIS X 4051, the space after closing brackets (cl-02), commas (cl-07) and middle dots (cl-05) at the end of a line are set solid, and the space after commas (cl-07) at the end of a line is set to a half em. Accordingly, JIS X 4051 defines the priority of processing as follows:

1. Western word space (cl-26), which is usually one third em, is reduced by equal amounts, to leave a minimum of a quarter em space between words.

2. The quarter em space before and after middle dots (cl-05) is reduced equally with proportional character size as far as solid setting.

3. The half em spaces before opening brackets (cl-01) and after closing brackets (cl-02) or commas (cl-07), are reduced equally with proportional character size as far as solid setting.

4. The quarter em spaces between Japanese text (hiragana (cl-15), katakana (cl-16) and ideographic characters (cl-19)) and Latin script text (grouped numerals (cl-24), Western characters (cl-27) and unit symbols (cl-25)) are reduced equally with proportional character size, as far as a 1/8th em space.

Procedures for Inter-Character Space Expansion

As with line adjustment by inter-character space reduction, for line adjustment by inter-character space expansion at first the order of processing and the maximum amount of space to be added are defined. In JIS X 4051, the following processing order is defined.

1. Western word space (cl-26), which is usually one third em, is added equally with proportional character size up to a maximum of a half em size for each space.

2. The quarter em space between Japanese text (hiragana (cl-15), katakana (cl-16) and ideographic characters (cl-19)) and Latin script text (grouped numerals (cl-24), Western characters (cl-27) and unit symbols (cl-25)) is increased equally with proportional character size, up to half em space (or one third em space).

3. For places which do not fall under (a) or (b) and which do not have the inseparable character rule (bunrikinshi), space is added equally with proportional character size up to a quarter em space.

4. In addition to the adaptation in the manner of (a), (b) and (c), in cases where such processing is not possible, space is added equally with proportional character size, with the exception of places which require the inseparable character rule (bunrikinshi).

Differences in Positioning of Characters and Symbols

The positioning of characters and symbols may vary depending on the following.

1. Is the character width full-width, half-width, or something else?

2. Is it allowed or forbidden to place the character or symbol at the line head? If it is allowed, how will it be placed?

3. Is it allowed or forbidden to place the character or symbol at the line end? If it is allowed, how will it be placed?

4. Are characters and symbols appearing in sequence in solid setting, or will there be a fixed size space between them? For example, sequences of ideographic characters (cl-19) and hiragana (cl-15) are set solid, and for Western characters (cl-27) following hiragana (cl-15) there will be quarter em space.

5. Is it allowed to have a line break within a sequence of characters? For example, there must not be a line break in a sequence of grouped numerals (cl-24).

6. Is it allowed to use the space between characters in a sequence during line adjustment processing? For example, is inter-character space reduction or addition possible between the characters appearing in sequence? Another issue to be decided is the preferred order for adjustment processing, and the amount of the allowed adjustment.

Grouping of Characters and Symbols depending on their Positioning

During layout processing, the issues mentioned in the previous section are addressed by grouping characters and symbols according to their characteristics, and handling them as character classes.

JIS X 4051 also provides similar character classes but that are slightly different from this document. Furthermore JIS X 4051 states that it is implementation-defined how to handle characters that are not explicitly mentioned, e.g. whether they should belong to either class or not.

A few character classes of this document are modified from JIS X 4051. In , there is a whole mapping table to ISO/IEC 10646 Annex A collection 285 (BASIC JAPANESE) and collection 286 (JAPANESE NON IDEOGRAPHIC EXTENSION). All character classes of this document are as follows:

1. Opening brackets (cl-01)

   ‘“（〔［｛〈《「『【 etc.

2. Closing brackets (cl-02)

   ’”）〕］｝〉》」』】 etc.

3. Hyphens (cl-03)

   ‐〜 etc.

4. Dividing punctuation marks (cl-04)

   ？！ etc.

5. Middle dots (cl-05)

   ・：；

6. Full stops (cl-06)

   。．

7. Commas (cl-07)

   、，

8. Inseparable characters (cl-08)

   —…‥ etc.

9. Iteration marks (cl-09)

   ヽヾゝゞ々 etc.

10. Prolonged sound marks (cl-10)

    ー

11. Small kana (cl-11)

    ぁぃぅぇぉァィゥェォっゃゅょッャュョ etc.

12. Prefixed abbreviations (cl-12)

    ￥＄￡＃ etc.

13. Postfixed abbreviations (cl-13)

    °′″℃￠％‰ etc.

14. Full-width ideographic space (cl-14)

    U+3000 IDEOGRAPHIC SPACE

15. Hiragana (cl-15)

    あいうえおかがきぎ etc.

16. Katakana (cl-16)

    アイウエオカガキギ etc.

17. Math symbols (cl-17)

    ＝≠＜＞≦≧⊆⊇∪∩ etc.

18. Math operators (cl-18)

    ＋－÷× etc.

19. Ideographic characters (cl-19)

    亜唖娃阿哀愛挨〃仝〆♂♀ etc.

20. Characters as reference marks (cl-20)

    Characters which are inside verification seal (those are characters inside a verification seal that appear in the line just after the item applicable for reference marks of notes). See 4.2.2 Note Numbers.

21. Ornamented character complexes (cl-21)

22. Simple-ruby character complexes (cl-22)

23. Jukugo-ruby character complexes (cl-23)

24. Grouped numerals (cl-24)

    Sequences of European numerals which are not full-width and are handled as Japanese text, the decimal point or the comma and space used as grade indicator in number.

25. Unit symbols (cl-25)

    Units described here include combinations of Latin script and Greek script characters used for international units (SI).

    

26. Western word space (cl-26)

27. Western characters (cl-27)

28. Warichu opening brackets (cl-28)

    （〔［ etc.

29. Warichu closing brackets (cl-29)

    ）〕］ etc.

30. Characters in tate-chu-yoko (cl-30)

Positioning Methods for each Character Class

For each character class it is possible to describe whether the characters may appear at the line head or line end or not, the positioning method for the line head or line end positions (if available), the amount of space between sequences of several characters, and the combination with character classes before or after the characters (in a 2 dimensional table). In JIS X 4051 this is shown in table 5 "Amount of space (between characters)".

Also, it can be defined for each combination of the character classes (in a two dimensional table) whether the characters of classes appearing in sequence allow for a line break between them, or whether it is possible during line adjustment processing to add inter character space between them. In JIS X 4051 these items are also shown in a two dimensional table. Table 6 shows whether a line break is possible, and table 7 shows if it is possible to add inter character space.

The width, in principle, of the space between each character or symbol in character classes used in this document is described in the table of .

The combinations of adjacent characters and symbols in character classes used in this document, and where text is breakable or not, is described in the table of .

The width of spaces between each character or symbol in character classes used in this document, and which can be reduced, is described in the table of . Also, expandable spaces are described in the table of .

Types of Headings

In terms of text composition, there are four types of headings.

1. Naka-tobira or han-tobira

2. Block headings

3. Run-in headings

4. Cut-in headings

Naka-tobira is used to separate sections of books. One whole odd page is used for the section title and the following even page is left blank. Naka-tobira sometimes includes author's names and illustrations, in addition to the section title (see ). Some kinds of book, such as encyclopedias, dictionaries and annual reports, use a different kind of paper from that in the main text.

Han-tobira is a simplified naka-tobira. The following even page is not blank, and is used for the main text.

Most books are usually set using naka-tobira or han-tobira, even when sections need not be separated with naka-tobira. In such cases, at the very top of the main text, namely just after the front matter, one naka-tobira is commonly set to show the book title itself.

A block heading is the heading occupying a whole, independent line. The main text is set from the very next line. Top level headings and medium level headings are of this type (see ).

A run-in heading is a heading immediately followed by main text without a line break, and is usually used as a low level heading (see ). Note that a low level heading can also appear as a block heading.

A drop heading is a somewhat modified run-in heading style. The footprint of the heading is followed by two or three main text lines without line breaks, like drop caps (see ). Drop headings are usually used for low level headings.

Elements of Block Heading

JIS X 4051 describes the elements of a block heading as follows: top level heading, medium level heading and low level heading have to have a label name, number, heading title and heading sub-title (see ). Note that the label name, number and heading sub-title are not mandatory.

There are several different styles of heading as follows: the heading is enclosed with symbols at the top and the bottom, rules (or thin lines) are inserted before and after the heading line, or the heading is enclosed with rectangular rules (or thin lines).

Font Selection and Heading Font Size

Headings have a hierarchical structure. So, each level of heading has to have an appropriate visual style. The following issues have to be considered:

1. Character size for the heading

   The character size of headings should be selected as appropriate in accordance with the level of headings. For example, when the character size of main text is 9 point, the small-headings are usually set with 10 points, medium-headings are usually set with 12 points and large-headings are usually set with 14 points. The character size of headings is usually larger than main text, and the character size of higher level headings are larger than the size of smaller size headings. is an example of this principle.

   

2. Type faces for headings

   Both mincho and Japanese gothic are usually used. Other type face designs are seldom used.

   

3. Alignment of headings (inline direction)

   In the case of horizontal writing mode, large-headings and medium-headings are in most cases centre-aligned. In the case of vertical writing mode, headings are usually aligned to the line head with some indent.

   

4. Block direction footprint of headings

   Generally, the block direction footprint of any element of layout, including figures, notes and headings, should be aligned to the line positions of the kihon-hanmen. Accordingly, the block direction space is set based on a number of lines in the kihon-hanmen. This method is usually called "gyou-dori". "Gyou-dori" is a very complicated issue, and provokes much discussion, so the detail will be discussed in another section with examples. Details will be discussed in and .

5. The beginning position of headings around page breaks etc.

   The handling of headings around page breaks and other places will be discussed in .

6. At any level, when the number of characters for a heading is two or three, the heading is sometimes set with fixed inter-character spacing. Examples are shown below (see ).

   

7. Whether to decorate with solid lines, or give a symbol on the top of the heading.

How to Handle Headings with New Recto, Page Break and New Column

A large heading sometimes starts with a new page following a page break, to clarify the separation between sections. The processing below should be followed:

1. Always begin with odd pages, i.e. new recto. Used for Naka-tobira, han-tobira and large-heading.

   

2. Always begin with new pages, regardless of even pages or odd pages, i.e. page breaking. Used for large-heading.

3. Always begin with even pages. Used for magazines articles beginning a spread page. Begin with right pages when in vertical writing mode and bound on the right-hand side. Begin with left pages when in horizontal writing mode and bound on the left-hand side.

4. In multicolumn format, begin with a new column.

5. Following previous text (see ), i.e. "nariyuki". Medium-headings and small-headings are usually processed with "nariyuki". Note that medium-headings are sometimes processed with a page break. Even when "nariyuki" mode is adopted, small-headings sometimes happen to be set at the top of new pages, also the headings at the very end of pages or columns are sometimes moved to the top of next page or column, for aesthetic reasons. (Details are described at .)

   

Handling of Spaces just before the New Recto, Page Breaks and New Edges

Spaces just before new rectos, page breaks and new columns are treated as follows (the last pages are treated as the same):

1. In the case of single column typesetting, the spaces just before the new rectos and page breaks are left as they are (see ).

   

2. In the case of multiple columns, the remaining space of preceding columns is left as it is.

3. In the case of vertical writing mode, columns are filled with text lines from upper right to lower left. There is no need to align line numbers of the upper column and lower column, and remaining spaces are left as they are (see ).

   

4. In horizontal writing mode and multi-column format, the number of lines for each column is set to be the same, but where the result of the total number of lines divided by the column number chosen for the kihon-hanmen results in an odd number, the last column may have a smaller number of lines and may be followed by blank space (see ).

   

Processing of Gyou-dori

"Gyou-dori" is the process of specifying the footprint of headings in the block direction by using the line positions provided by the kihon-hanmen as a basis and by deciding how many times they need to be used. The length of the footprint in the block direction is calculated as follows: (line width in the block direction) × (line number) + (line gap) * (line number − 1). However, when the heading footprint happens to appear in middle of the page or the column, the footprint has adjacent line gaps before and after, and when the heading footprint happens to appear at the top of the page or the column, the footprint has an adjacent line gap after.

The following procedures are some of the ways "betsugyou" headings are processed based on the "gyou-dori" method:

1. Set the heading text at the center of the space specified with multiple lines of the kihon-hanmen. For example, when the heading is set at the center of a three line space, it is called "center of three lines space". Following are some examples (see et al). In these figures, gray rectangles indicate the main text, and dotted rectangles in the heading area indicate the space specified with kihon-hanmen text lines. Also, running headings and page numbers are indicated with gray rectangles.

2. Set the heading text at the center of the footprint specified with a multiple number of lines of the kihon-hanmen, and add space size before and/or after also specified using numbers of lines of the kihon-hanmen. For example, when adding space corresponding to the size of one line of the kihon-hanmen, it is called a one line blank space. Following are some examples (see et al).

3. Set the heading text in the space specified with multiple number of lines from the kihon-hanmen, with specific specifications regarding size. In this case, the size of the heading block in the block direction is the total of the previous space, the character size and the after space, and the size should be the same as the space occupied by multiple lines of the kihon-hanmen. Following are some examples (see et al).

4. Set one line heading at the place decided by the kihon-hanmen design and set one blank line before the heading line. Blank lines may be more than one line, but such cases are very rare. This style is commonly used for small-headings. Following are some examples (see et al).

5. When headings are on multiple levels, set "gyou-dori" headings with different line spaces per heading level. There are two cases. One is the single heading case, the other is adjacent multiple headings. In these cases, spaces in the block direction should look the same in both the single heading case and in the case of adjacent different level headings. To implement this design, in some cases, same level headings have different spaces depending on whether the heading is single or whether headings are adjacent. There are some examples in .

6. The heading is set in a block of multiple lines, which is specified by using the line positions provided by the kihon-hanmen as a basis, but is not set in the center of the block but rather specified by specification of line numbers and spaces before and after. See an example in et al.

   

   

   

   

   

   

   

   

   

   

   

   

   

   

   

   

Processing of Gyou-dori Heading Set at the bottom of the Page

When the gyou-dori heading is set at the bottom of the page (or the top of the page), the processing is done as follows in consideration of the visual effect:

1. Except for (d) of the previous section, when it is not possible to set the heading block at the bottom of the page, the block is set at the top of the next page and the remaining space at the bottom of the former page may be left blank (see for the case of the previous section).

2. When there is space for the heading block at the bottom of the page but no space for following main text, in cases involving vertical writing style on an odd page, horizontal writing style on an odd page and horizontal writing style on an even page, the heading block is set at the top of the next page and remaining space at the bottom of the previous page may be left blank (see ). In the case of vertical writing style on an even page, the heading block is set at the bottom of the page.

   

   

3. When the heading block of gyou-dori comes at the bottom of the column, the block is moved to the top of the next for reasons of visual aesthetics. The blank space of the bottom of a previous column needs some processing, however it may be left blank if there is no solution.

Processing when a One Line Space is Set Before a Low Level Heading

When a one line space is set before a low level heading, the following different cases apply when the one line space comes at the top of the page.

1. When the low level heading with a one line space before comes at the top of the page, the one line space is always set before the heading. The reason is that the heading and the one line space before are regarded as one unified object.

   

2. When a heading with one blank line comes at the top of the page, the blank line before should be deleted. At the top of the page there is already space before the line, so there is no need for an additional blank line.

   

3. When a heading with one blank line before comes at the top of the page, if the previous page is filled with lines of text, set the blank line before the heading, and if the bottom of the previous page has one or two blank lines, set no blank line before the heading ().

   

Processing of Run-in Headings

Run-in headings are usually used for low level headings. The following are some examples of run-in headings. Inter-character space between the run-in heading and following main text is usually a one em space of the base character size decided for the kihon-hanmen. Note that the run-in heading may be set at the last line of the page, or of the column in multi column style.

1. The run-in heading is set with the same character size as the main text and with Japanese gothic face (see ).

   

2. Set the run-in heading with one level smaller character size than the main text and use Japanese gothic face (see ).

   

3. Set the run-in heading with the same character size and type-face as the main text. Note that the heading number or Western characters (cl-27) at the top of the heading are set with Japanese gothic face or bold face, for emphasis (see ).

   

Processing of Cut-in Headings

Drop headings are also used for low level headings. A drop heading has no label name or heading number. Processing is as follows (see ):

1. Set the cut-in heading with one rank smaller character size than the main text or the same character size as the main text, and with Japanese gothic face.

2. It is better that the cut-in heading occupies a maximum of three lines and ten characters per line. JIS X 4051 determines that cut-in headings with up to six characters should be one line, up to twenty characters should be two lines and more than twenty-one characters should be three lines. When the cut-in heading has two lines, each line has half the number of characters of the heading text. When the cut-in heading has three lines, each line has a third of the number of characters of the heading text. If lines have a different number of characters, the last line may have less characters, and the remainder may be blank space. The line gap of two or three lines of cut-in heading is usually a fourth of an em of the heading character size.

3. The line indent of a cut-in heading is usually a half em of the base character size for the kihon-hanmen. The in-line direction length of a cut-in heading is usually multiples of the character size for the kihon-hanmen. The space between the cut-in heading and the main text is usually more than one em and less than two em of the character size for the kihon-hanmen.

4. When a cut-in heading has one line, the heading is set in the center of a two line space of the kihon-hanmen and two lines of main text are set following the cut-in heading. When the cut-in heading has two lines or three lines, the heading is set in the center of a three line space of the kihon-hanmen and three lines of main text follow the cut-in heading.

   

   

5. A cut-in heading may be set at the end of a page or column. Note that if the space is less than the block direction width of the cut-in heading, the heading should be set on a new page or new column and the blank before the heading may be left as is. One cut-in heading is not set across two pages or two columns.

Processing of Column Spanning Headings

In multi-column pages, headings spanning multiple columns are processed as follows:

1. A spanning heading spanning all columns in the kihon-hanmen is usually set at the top of the page after the page break or new recto. However, there are cases where full spanning headings are set around the middle of the page. In such cases, main text lines are turned back before the heading block, including before headings that are not full spanning headings (see ).

   

2. When turning back main text before a spanning block, if the divided text lines are not same, the last column has less lines and remaining blank lines may be left as is (see ). In vertical writing mode, the column with the least number of lines is the column nearest the bottom, and in horizontal writing mode, the column with the least number of lines is the right-most column.

   

3. The less spanning block headings are usually set in the middle of the page. In these cases, the way in which multi column heading blocks are set is decided as follows:

   1. When setting main text lines in multiple columns, if the spanning block heading appears in the first column, the spanning heading block is set to start from the first column ().

      

   2. When main text lines are set following the multi column region, if a spanning block heading does not appear in the top column, the heading is set in that column or in the previous column. If the heading block appears before the block direction center of the column, the heading is set from the previous column (see ). If the heading block appears after the block direction center of the column, the heading is set from that column itself (see ). Note that if the line direction bottom of the heading block runs out of the hanmen, the heading block is set from previous columns (see ).

      

      

      

4. Spanning block headings are not set at the bottom of columns. Full spanning block headings are moved to the top of the next page. The bottom of the previous page is processed in the same way as for new recto and page break cases. Less column spanning block headings are moved to other positions, usually one column down.

Kinds of Notes

The following kinds of notes are used in Japanese text layout, besides notes between LEFT PARENTHESIS "(" and RIGHT PARENTHESIS ")" or warichu:

1. Endnotes: Notes used both in horizontal writing mode and vertical writing mode, set after a paragraph, a clause, a chapter or the whole base text. In vertical writing mode this type is most frequently used (see ). In horizontal writing mode, the frequency of this type is second after footnotes (see ).

   

   

2. Headnotes (in vertical writing mode) : Notes set above the kihon-hanmen in vertical writing mode. The area for the headnote is reserved at the upper part of the kihon-hanmen when the kihon-hanmen is designed, and notes related to a page or spread are set in the same page or spread (see ). Headnotes are frequently used as explanations for words and idioms of Japanese classic texts. Japanese classic texts are sometimes set with three vertical areas, the top area is used for head notes, the middle area is used for the original text and the bottom area is used for a modern Japanese translation.

   

3. Footnotes (in horizontal writing mode) : Notes set beneath the kihon-hanmen (see ). In horizontal writing mode, footnotes are the most frequently used note style.

   

4. Footnotes (in vertical writing mode) : The area for the footnote for vertical writing mode is reserved at the bottom of the kihon-hanmen beforehand, when the kihon-hanmen is designed, and notes are set in this area. This is similar to a headnote, but the location is beneath the base text. It is used in Japanese classic texts and keimousho (enlightening books), as explanations for technical terms. When illustrations are included in the footnote, basically the illustrations should be set within the footnote area (see ).

   

5. Sidenotes (in vertical writing mode) : In vertical writing mode, related notes in a spread are set in the fore-edge of the left (recto) page (see ). In vertical writing mode, sidenotes are not frequently used. However, this style may be used more frequently, because for the reader this style causes minimal disturbance when following the flow of the base text, and the notes can be set very near to the related base text.

   

6. Sidenotes (in horizontal writing mode) : In horizontal writing mode an area for a sidenote is reserved at the fore-edge side when the kihon-hanmen is designed, and the notes related to the page are set in the sidenote area of the same page (). Related illustrations are also set in the area. There are cases where sidenotes in horizontal writing style are set not in the fore-edge but right side of both recto and verso pages (). There are not so many cases of sidenotes in horizontal writing style. This style is sometimes used for keimousho (enlightening books) with many illustrations.

   

   

Note Numbers

Some notes have no explicit relationship to the specific position of the base text, and describe issues only vaguely related to the issues on the same page. However, in most cases, notes are explicitly related to specific positions within the base text using note numbers.

Note numbers in corresponding positions in the base text are called reference marks. The character class of reference mark is characters as reference marks (cl-20).

There are several principles related to how to reset the series of note numbers. Endnotes are usually reset every chapter or section. Sidenotes in vertical writing mode are usually reset in every spread. Footnotes in horizontal writing mode are usually reset in every page.

Headnotes (in vertical writing mode), footnotes (vertical writing mode) and sidenotes (in horizontal writing mode) sometimes have no note numbers and are set with corresponding heading text with Japanese gothic typeface at the top of the note text (see ).

The Processing of the Reference Mark

There are two styles for setting reference marks (characters as reference marks (cl-20)). One is to set the reference mark adjacent to the target word and on the interlinear right side (in vertical writing mode) or interlinear upper side (in horizontal writing mode). The other is to set the reference mark in the line just after the target word.

The method where the reference mark is set on the right side (vertical writing mode) or above (horizontal writing mode) is as follows (see , ).

1. Character size of reference marks is around 6 points.

2. In vertical writing mode, the bottom edges of the character frames of the target word and the characters as reference marks (cl-20) are aligned. In horizontal writing mode, the right side of the characters as reference marks (cl-20) and the target word are aligned. The characters as reference marks (cl-20) are not set outside of the area of the hanmen or column, so in such cases, characters as reference marks (cl-20) are aligned at the top of the line. In this case, characters as reference marks (cl-20) may jut out of the bottom of the target word.

3. The target word corresponding to the reference mark can be split across a line break where permitted. However, characters as reference marks (cl-20) are not split when including opening brackets (cl-01) and closing brackets (cl-02) and are treated as one object.

4. Reference marks do not affect the default line gap.

5. Reference marks, attached to the word set in the first line of the page or column, are set touching the outside of the hanmen or column area (see (, ).

In vertical writing mode, characters as reference marks (cl-20) are set just after the target word inline, as follows (see ):

1. Character size of reference marks is one or two levels smaller than the character size defined for the kihon-hanmen.

2. The right side of characters as reference marks (cl-20) is set aligned with the right side of the base character line.

3. Characters as reference marks (cl-20) are set solid with the base text before and after, except when followed by opening brackets (cl-01) (see Appendix B Spacing between Characters).

4. Characters as reference marks (cl-20) do not include line breaks when including opening brackets (cl-01) and closing brackets (cl-02), and are handled as one object. Characters as reference marks (cl-20) are not used for the line adjustment process, i.e., are set solid. Also, characters as reference marks (cl-20) and base characters before and after are set solid.

In horizontal writing mode, characters as reference marks (cl-20) are set inline just after the target word as follows ():

1. Characters as reference marks (cl-20) are same kind to characters for superior scripts.

2. Characters as reference marks (cl-20) and base characters before and after are set solid, except for characters as reference marks (cl-20) followed by opening brackets (cl-01).

3. Characters as reference marks (cl-20) are not broken across a line end when including opening brackets (cl-01) and closing brackets (cl-02), and are handled as a one object. Characters as reference marks (cl-20) are not used for the line adjustment process, i.e., are set solid. Also, characters as reference marks (cl-20) and base characters before and after are set solid.

Processing of Endnotes in Vertical Writing Mode or Horizontal Writing Mode

The following figure is a common example of endnotes set at the end of paragraphs in vertical writing mode (see ).

Specific issues related to setting endnotes in vertical writing mode or horizontal writing mode include the following:

1. The character size of endnotes should be one or two levels smaller than the character size of the base text in the kihon-hanmen.

2. The indent length should be around two characters sizes of the base text in the kihon-hanmen. The line length of endnotes should be an integer-based number of times the endnote character size. The bottom of the endnote line should be set aligned with the bottom edge of the kihon-hanmen or column area. Accordingly, the indent length of endnotes needs to be adjusted and the length may sometimes differ by an integer-based number of units based on the base character size of the kihon-hanmen.

3. The inter-letter space after the head endnote number is usually the size of a full-width character of the endnote.

4. When the endnote is two lines or more, the second line and after are indented one or two full-width character sizes longer than the first line.

5. Line gaps of endnotes are narrower than the line gap of the kihon-hanmen because of the smaller character size of endnotes.

6. When new chapters are begun after a page break or new recto, endnotes are set just before the page or page break or new recto, and the space after the endnote may be left as is. Only the line gap between the base text and the endnote should be specified. However, when the endnotes are set between paragraphs, the line gap before and after the endnote becomes an issue. Basically, the minimum size of line gaps between the endnote and the base text, before and after, is the line gap decided for the kihon-hanmen, and usually, the line at the end of the hanmen or a column is aligned with the bottom of the hanmen or the column. In these cases, the fraction of line gap is basically adjusted by the increase of the line gap after the endnote, but when the endnote comes to the end of the hanmen or the column, the line gap before the endnote is increased ().

   

Processing of Footnotes in Horizontal Writing Mode

Setting positions of footnotes in horizontal writing mode are at the bottom of the hanmen in the page where the target words and the reference marks appear in one column, and at the bottom of the column space where the target words and the reference marks appear in two or more columns. When footnotes overflow from the hanmen or the column, the overflowed part of the footnotes is inserted before the footnotes of the next page or next column.

Following figure is an common example of footnotes in horizontal writing mode (see ).

The following items are outstanding issues when setting footnotes in horizontal writing mode:

1. The character size of footnotes is one or two levels smaller than the character size of the base text in the kihon-hanmen.

2. Usually footnotes are accompanied by lines to separate the base text and footnotes (i.e. rules), indentation is not needed. However because the line length of footnotes should be multiples of the character size of footnotes, the difference in line length of the base text and line length of footnotes is adjusted with the insertion of left side spaces and the bottom of footnote is aligned with the kihon-hanmen or column area.

3. The inter-character space between footnote numbers at the top of the line and footnote text is usually a full-width of footnote text character in size.

4. When a footnote has two or more lines, the second line or below is indented by one em space, or the first line is indented by one em space of footnote character size ().

   

5. Line gaps of footnotes are narrower according to the smaller size of footnote characters. The line gap of footnotes is recommended to be a half em of a footnote character size or slightly narrower, depending on the base text line gap.

6. A line called a rule is inserted between the base text and footnotes to distinguish the footprint of the footnotes. For this purpose, a thin border is used. The length of the line is usually one third of the line length of the kihon-hanmen, depending on the kihon-hanmen design. The left side of the line is aligned to the left side of the hanmen or column. The line gap between the line and the footnote is slightly wider than the usual line gap among footnotes.

7. The minimum size of line gaps among base text, the rule, and footnotes is a line gap size of the base text in the kihon-hanmen. The bottom line of footnotes is aligned to the edge of the kihon-hanmen or column area. Accordingly, fractions will appear. This fraction is inserted between the base text area and the rule. Accordingly, the fraction between the rule and the base text area will change between the line gap of the kihon-hanmen and the character size plus line gap of the kihon-hanmen.

Processing of Sidenotes in Vertical Writing Mode

The following figure is a common example of sidenotes in vertical writing mode (see ).

Side notes in vertical writing mode are similar to footnotes in horizontal writing mode. Accordingly, general methods for footnotes in horizontal writing mode can be applied to sidenotes in vertical writing mode. The following items are outstanding issues only applied to sidenotes in vertical writing mode:

1. Side notes in vertical writing mode are set at the left side of the odd page of the spread to which corresponding reference marks appear. In multiple columns, sidenotes are aligned to the left side of the lowest column.

2. When the volume of sidenotes is too great, the sidenotes may overflow to the even page. In multiple columns, the sidenotes may overflow to the column above.

3. When it is not possible to set any sidenotes or some of the sidenotes in a spread, the overflowed part may be inserted before the sidenotes corresponding to the next reference mark in an odd page or the lowest column in an odd page of the next spread.

4. In pages just before a page break or a new recto, the sidenotes are set in the last page of the section following the base text, even if the last page is even. If it is not possible to set the side notes in the page, the part of the notes that juts out is set from the top of the next page or the top of the first column, then the page is followed by page break or new recto.

5. In the above cases, the remaining space is usually inserted after the sidenote, unlike the case where footnotes are inserted between the base text and the footnotes in horizontal writing mode.

6. A thin line is inserted between the base text and sidenotes to distinguish them. The line is a thin border. The length of the line depends on the line length of the kihon-hanmen, but is usually one third of the line length, and the top end of the line is aligned to the top edge of the kihon-hanmen. It is recommended that the gap between the line and the sidenotes is a little bit wider than for footnote cases.

7. The minimum value of the line gap between the line to distinguish the base text and sidenotes is the value of line gap decided in the kihon-hanmen. The left side of the last line of the sidenotes is aligned to the left edge of the kihon-hanmen or the column. Accordingly, a fraction space in the block direction is inserted between the base text area and the rule, and the fraction between the rule and the base text area will change between the line gap of the kihon-hanmen and the character size plus line gap of the kihon-hanmen.

Processing of Headnotes (in Vertical Writing Mode), Footnotes (in Vertical Writing Mode) and Sidenotes (in Horizontal Writing Mode)

Processing of headnotes in vertical writing mode, footnotes in vertical writing mode and sidenotes in horizontal writing mode is very similar, so these processing methods will be described together in this section. These types of notes will be called parallel-notes, hereafter.

There are the following relationships between the parallel-note and the main text:

1. Setting the note number as a reference mark: Set a number as a reference mark (characters as reference marks (cl-20) at the corresponding main text position, and set the same number at the very top of the parallel-note.

2. Setting symbols as a reference mark: Set a symbol (ex. ASTERISK "*") beside the corresponding main text position or change the font style or corresponding main text position to another font style (ex. Japanese Gothic) (, ).

   

   

3. Set parallel-notes in the same spread where the corresponding main text positions appear without reference marks. Only the key words are emphasized with a difference of font style (ex. Japanese Gothic).

There are some issues specific to setting parallel-notes as follows:

1. The character size of parallel-notes is one or two ranks smaller than the character size of main text in the kihon-hanmen.

2. The line length of parallel-notes is an integer based multiple of the character size of notes. It depends on the book size; around fifteen characters to twenty characters in a line is recommended. In some cases around twenty five characters is acceptable.

3. The line gap of parallel-notes is basically a half em of the character size of the parallel-notes. When the volume of parallel-notes is high, there are cases of one third em.

4. The size of the parallel-note area in the block direction is the same as the size of the main text in the kihon-hanmen.

5. It is recommended to set the space between parallel-notes and the main text in inline direction at around double the em character size of the main text in the kihon-hanmen.

6. Usually, indentation of the second line and after, like end notes, is not applied to parallel-notes. In the majority of cases, the first line of a parallel-note is set as tentsuki. There are cases where the first line is indented by one a em character size of the parallel-notes, like common paragraphs.

7. The inter-letter space between the note number and the following parallel-note text is around one em of a parallel-note character size. There are cases where the note number and target word are changed to a different font style (ex. Japanese Gothic) and the note number and the target word are set solid. The inter-letter space between the target word and parallel-note text is one em of the parallel-note text size (see ).

   

The setting of parallel-notes and the main text area is as follows:

1. The position of target text and the position of a parallel-note in block direction are aligned as near as possible. In vertical writing mode, the right edge of the target word and the right edge of the parallel-note are aligned. In horizontal writing mode, the upper edge of the target word and the upper edge of the parallel-note are aligned (see ).

   

2. After these methods are applied, if the parallel-note text overflows, there needs to be some arrangement to handle that within the page. In vertical writing mode, the parallel-note positions are shifted to the right, and in horizontal writing mode, the parallel-note positions are shift above (see ). This arrangement is done until the first parallel-note reaches the right edge in vertical writing mode or the top edge in horizontal writing mode. If there is more overflow, the overflowed part of the parallel-notes is set at the top of the next page. In vertical writing mode, arrangements may be applied not within the page but within the spread.

   

3. When there are multiple parallel-notes set in the same page or the same spread, the following methods are applied:

   1. The line gap between the two different parallel-notes is explicitly specified, or the value for the line gap within the parallel-note itself is applied if there is no explicit instruction.

   2. The arrangement of positioning is done as follows. First, the parallel-note positions are settled from first parallel-note, and second parallel-note and after is set with the instructed line gap or corresponding position to the target word in the main text. Second, if the parallel-note will overflow, the parallel-notes are set from the bottom of parallel-note area. Third, if the parallel-notes still overflow, parallel-notes are set from the top of the parallel-note area with appropriate line gap, and the overflowed part of the parallel-notes is set at the top of the next page or next spread.

   3. When the parallel-notes will overflow to the next page or next spread, the instructed line gap is inserted between the overflowed part of the parallel-notes and the original parallel-note part. The realm after the overflowed part is the area for the original parallel-notes.

Specification of the Position of Illustrations

There are two methods for specifying the position of illustrations.

1. With this method, first, the in slip for the body of the book is created. Then, for each page, layout processing is executed, and the positioning of illustrations on a specific page and its position in that page are specified.

2. With this method, the relation between the main text and the illustration is specified, and the position of the illustration within the page is specified only in principle.

   

   

   

The explanation below is restricted to method (b). Illustration, captions and notes will be regarded as one piece of data. The positioning method for this single piece of data is explained.

Basic Concepts about Illustration Positioning

When the position of an illustration within a page is specified only by the relation between illustration and main text, it is desirable that the explanation of the illustration in the main text and the illustration are as close as possible to each other.

Requirements for Illustration Positioning in Vertical Layout

For vertical layout as in , the following requirements for illustration positioning apply.

1. In books, the spread is the basis for the design, and the illustration position is specified towards the head and fore-edge. Hence it is necessary to use the spread as the basis for the specification of the position. Concretely it means that the position has to correspond to "towards the fore-edge" or towards the gutter.

2. In vertical layout, often the upper part of an illustration touches the head of the hanmen, or the left or right part touches the fore-edge. This makes it necessary to position the illustration relying on the hanmen (or the final size). Furthermore, even if the complete hanmen is occupied by the illustration, depending on the illustration content, in some cases it is better style to position the illustration about 1mm inside the hanmen.

3. As said in "b", normally, it is appropriate to specify a position starting from the hanmen. However, in the case of a bleed, it is necessary to jut out of the final size to position the illustration (see ). Furthermore, in such cases it is possible to specify an intuitive position, if the specification of the position uses the edge of the trim size as the origin (see ).

   

4. If base text is placed around illustrations, normally the smallest space size between them is specified. The smallest space size is the character size used for the main text (which is specified for the kihon-hanmen), or the line gap (also specified for the kihon-hanmen). It is also necessary to specify the line length of surrounding text as an integral multiple of the character size in use.

   

5. If the number of characters of main text to be placed around illustrations in inline direction is very small (for example 1/4 of the line length of the kihon-hanmen or less than 9 characters), it is better to not place the characters and leave the space free (see ). Also, as shown in the left part of , for the arrangement of illustrations in the block direction, it is bad style and should be avoided to have only one line of main text (in , the right side shows the appropriate way).

   

   

Requirements for Illustration Positioning in Horizontal Layout

In the case of horizontal layout as in , the following requirements for illustration positioning apply.

1. In case of , the basic approach is to position the illustration directly after the paragraph with its explanation (see ).

   

   If due to space it is not possible to position the illustration in that place, it is placed at the head or foot of the hanmen (see ).

   

2. As shown in , often characters are not put to the right or left of an illustration, and the space is left blank. However, there is also the possibility of placing the illustration at the side of the fore-edge (see ) or the right side (see ). Also in these cases, the illustrations are not placed - like in vertical layout - at the side of the head, but often in linkage with the main text. That is, the illustrations are placed on the page with their explanations, beside the mid paragraph anchor point or on the head or foot (see and ).

   

   

3. As shown in the left part of , like in vertical layout, it is bad style and must be avoided to have just one line of the main text around an illustration in the block direction. In the example in , the problem is solved by transferring the single line below the illustration above it and placing the illustration at the bottom fore-edge of the hanmen.

   

4. Illustrations which stretch across several columns in a print space are normally placed at the head or foot (see ).

   

Basic Ideas about Illustration Positioning in JIS X 4051

To provide some background for the preceding discussion, the main definitions of JIS X 4051 will be introduced below.

1. JIS X 4051 defines two methods for illustration positioning: "relative position specification" and "absolute position specification". Below the definitions from this standard are described.

   Relative position specification: the specification of block units appears together with the flow of, say, paragraphs of the main text within lines. The lines are the basis for positioning, and segmentation of the line feed is not possible. ("block unit": a general term for blocks of figures, images etc. and tables)

   Absolute position specification: the specification of block units appears within the hanmen or spread. An absolute position based on these is the basis for illustration placement.

   In the case of , where the position is specified from two directions (from the head or the fore-edge), the absolute position specification method is used.

   As shown in , or , when the position in the inline direction is given as specified, and the position in the block direction is determined depending on the position of the main text which refers to the block unit, the adopted method is relative positioning (of course absolute positioning is possible too for placement at the head or foot ).

   Furthermore, JIS X 4051 defines the placement of the specification method for gutter and fore-edge with absolute positioning method, but not with relative positioning. It is desirable to allow for a positioning based upon a specification method of gutter and fore-edge, also for relative positioning.

2. When both the main text (or the main paragraph in JIS X 4051 terminology) and the illustration are on the same page, either method does not raise any problem unless there is only a single line of the main text to be laid out before the illustration in the block direction on the top of the content page area or after the illustration at the bottom as shown in or in . The problematic cases are where, via the relation to the corresponding text or the size of the illustration, the illustration juts out of the the hanmen or the area of the column, or the page of the main text and the page of the illustration are different. About these issues JIS X 4051 makes the following definitions.

   1. With the relative positioning method, the illustration is placed directly after the line in which the anchor in the main text is defined. If, as a result of the positioning, the illustration juts out of the hanmen or the column, the length of the part of the illustration inside the hanmen or the column (a), and the part outside the area (b) will be compared (see ). Since it should be avoided (if possible) that an illustration appears before its explanation in the main text, the comparison uses not a simple 1/2, but a relative weight. If concretely like in the relation between a and b is a ≧ 2b, the illustration is placed on that page (in the final stage), and the lines which overlap with the area of the illustration (including the line with the anchor) are put on the following page, they are put out (see ).

      

      

      Also, in the case of a < 2b (see ), the illustration is placed on the following page, and the free area is filled with main text taken from the following page.

      

      

   2. The same basic ideas apply also for absolute positioning. However, the portions to be compared are different than with relative positioning.

      With the absolute positioning method, first the distance between the specification of the position via the anchor in the main text, and the distance to the end of the area of the hanmen or the column are calculated (see a in the left part of ). Next, as a result of the positioning of the illustration, the anchor will be moved. If the moved anchor is on the same page, the illustration will be placed on that page.

      If the anchor has moved to the following page, the distance between that anchor and the beginning of the area of the hanmen or the column will be calculated (see b in the right part of ).

      

      In addition, a and b are compared. If a ≧ 2b, the illustration is placed on the page where the anchor appeared first. In the case of a < 2b, the illustration is placed after the page where the anchor appeared first. In the example in , a < 2b, the illustration is moved to the left page (page 13), see .

      

      shows an example where an anchor firstly appears in the 5th line of a page (page 12), and as a result of illustration placement, the anchor is moved to the second line of the left page (page 13). In this case a ≧ 2b, and the illustration is left on the right page (page 12).

      

3. In addition some more definitions related to illustration positioning are introduced below.

   1. With the absolute positioning method, a stranded line before or after the illustration in the block direction can be predicted and hence avoided. In contrast, with the relative positioning method, it happens that a stranded line in the block direction is left out as a result. This is bad style, and JIS X 4051 defines a processing method for avoiding it.

   2. Several elements come in between e.g. paragraphs, and it is necessary to adapt the area of the hanmen size in the block direction. For this case, there are several approaches about style designed via the kihon-hanmen (character size, line spacing etc.) and different style elements: the approach of unifying the space around such elements, or the approach of maintaining (if at all possible) the position of lines specified during the design of the hanmen. JIS X 4051 defines two methods for this topic (see section ).

   3. When the space around an illustration is maintained and main text is inserted in the free area, it is necessary to adapt the line length to integral multiple of the characters used. Such aspects are defined in JIS X 4051 as well (see ).

   4. Also, if the number of surrounding characters is extremely low, it is better to keep the surroundings free. If the number of surrounding characters is 1/4 of the line length of the kihon-hanmen or 9 characters below, JIS X 4051 specifies that no main text should surround an illustration. In or the illustration is placed midway down the page using the relative positioning method, so it is necessary to unify the space above and below the illustration. JIS X 4051 also provides definitions for this aspect (see ).

      

   5. For positioning of illustrations relying on the spread, JIS X 4051 defines a method using the absolute positioning method (see )..

Elements of Tables

A table is set of cells, which includes numbers, facts or information, arranged in rows across and down lines for easy recognition at a glance.

In JIS X 4015, there is a figure of an example of the structure of table in horizontal writing mode as follows (see ). The following descriptions will use the terminology in this figure.

Tables are used for various purposes, and there is a lot to consider with regards to the processing of tables, so, only Japanese language related issues are discussed here.

Direction of Tables Themselves

Tables themselves can be classified according to horizontal mode and vertical mode.

When the direction of a table itself is horizontal, the position of the origin and the setting order of cell contents is as follows ():

1. The origin is the left upper top of the table.

2. The order of cells in a line is from left to right.

3. The order of lines in a table is from top to bottom.

4. In the first line of , cells from cell ① to cell ③ are filled with cell contents, consequently, in the second line, cells from cell ④ to cell ⑦ are filled with cell contents, and in the third line, cell ④ is skipped and cells from cell ⑧ to cell ⑩ are filled with cell contents.

   

When the direction of a table itself is vertical, the position of the origin and the setting order of cell contents is as follows ().

1. The origin is the right upper top of the table.

2. The order of cells in a line is from top to bottom.

3. The order of lines in a table is from right to left.

4. In the first line of cells from cell ① to cell ③ are filled with cell contents, consequently, in the second line, cells from cell ④ to cell ⑦ are filled with cell contents, and in the third line, cell ④ is skipped and cells from cell ⑧ to cell ⑩ are filled with cell contents.

The text direction in a cell content is vertical or horizontal only, and cannot be mixed. When different text directions are needed in a cell, the cell is divided into two cells.

An Example of Layout with a Table

Following is an example of a vertical writing mode book with a table (see ). The issues to be noted are as follows:

1. The direction of the kihon-hanmen is vertical, and the table itself is predominantly in horizontal writing mode. However, some cells of the header row are cell merged and vertically set.

2. The character size of the table text is smaller than the character size of the kihon-hanmen (kihon-hanmen: nine point, table: seven point or eight point). The caption of the table is also seven point with the number emphasized with Japanese Gothic (there are cases where all the caption text is emphasized with Japanese Gothic). The note attached to the table is six point, smaller than the table text.

3. The usage of visible lines to distinguish cells is limited. In this case, the top horizontal line is emphasized with a width of 0.25 mm., other horizontal lines are 0.12 mm. width. There are cases where the top horizontal line is 0.4 mm. or 0.12 mm.

   

4. The top column of the table is used for row header names. and the first two rows from left are used for column header names, partially merged to one row.

5. The width of each row is calculated as follows: firstly, calculate the width of the widest cell content in the column, and add space the size of a half em of the character size of the cell to both edges of the text. Secondly, adjust for the multiples of the character size used for the table. Thirdly, if the cell contents among different rows are similar, the width of the rows are set the same (in the fourth and fifth rows from the left).

6. Some row headers have two lines with no line gap to maintain appropriate proportions with the cell contents.

7. Column header names and row header names are set with evenly distributed-character spacing, except for vertically set KANJI cells and "total" cells. "Total" cells shall be distinguished from other ordinary cells.

8. The horizontal position of names of header rows and the header column are horizontally centered.

9. For cells except header rows and header columns, all numeric data is set aligned by the decimal point, or line end aligned for currency. Numeric data is centered according to the longest numeric cell, but the space size after shall not be longer than the space size before.

10. The block direction spaces between KEISEN and cell contents are as follows: the spaces between visible KEISEN and cell content are a half em space of the basic table character size. The spaces between invisible KEISEN and cell content are a fourth em space of the basic table character size. Namely, it can be said that the visible line gaps are one half em except for the header row. In this example, there are two line cells as a header, the block direction spaces between KEISEN and cell contents are set with a minimum gap of one fourth em (see a and b). The reason is not to make a space between KEISEN and cell contents for other one line cells.

Kinds of Tables from Allocation to Page Position

There are several kinds of tables as follows:

1. Tables treated as one object with captions and notes together with the table itself, where it is prohibited to divide across two or more pages or columns.

   1. Linked with an anchor of the base text, and moved with the anchor. The position of the table is relative (see and ).

      

   2. Tables allocated with absolute position in the kihon-hanmen, except for the tables allocated with absolute position in a spread (see ).

      

2. Tables allocated in a spread with absolute position (see ).

   

3. Tables anchored to base text and moving with the position of the anchor, can also be divided across two or more pages or columns. In JIS X 4051, this type of table is called "continuously allocated tables" (see ).

   

Processing of Tables Allocated in a Spread

When a table is allocated in a spread, it is desirable to allocate within the spread. However, sometimes it is impossible to allocate in the same spread where the table is linked to. In such cases, the spread where the table is allocated is decided as follows (see ): Firstly, calculate the distance between the anchor position of the base text and the last position of the spread (see ). Secondly, calculate the distance between the original position of the anchor and the position of the anchor when the table is allocated at the spread where the anchor was originally positioned, and consequently the position of the anchor is overflowed to the next spread (see ). Finally, compare these two distances, and decide whether to allocate the table to the original spread or next spread (see ).

The next problem is where to divide a table. In some senses, illustrations can be divided wherever specified or at the kihon-hanmen border. On the other hand, there are some limitations and issues to consider when dividing tables as follows:

1. Tables are divided at the border of rows or columns, with condition that the border between the header and adjoining cells shall not be divided, also it is prohibited to divide just after captions.

2. When there is a visible KEISEN at the expected dividing position, the common approach is as follows:

   1. When the outer frame KEISENs of inline direction are visible, the top side KEISEN at the dividing position shall be invisible and the bottom side KEISEN at the dividing position shall be visible (see ).

      

   2. When the outer frame KEISENs of inline direction are invisible, the top side KEISEN at the dividing position shall be visible and the bottom side KEISEN at the dividing position shall be invisible (see ).

      

   3. When the tables are divided by column units, the KEISEN at the dividing position of the top part shall be invisible, and the bottom part KEISEN shall be visible.

Processing of Dividable Tables

Processing of dividable tables is as follows:

1. Dividable tables are set from the position of the specified anchor text position with specified line direction gap

2. The inline length of the table shall not hang out from the inline length of the kihon-hanmen or the column.

3. Dividable tables are divided at the bottom of the kihon-hanmen or the column and between lines of the table. When there are other tables or illustrations are set in the page, the space for the other tables or illustrations should be kept beforehand.

4. Captions and header line shall not be divided in following cases:

   1. Between header with two lines.

   2. Between caption and header column.

   3. Between header column.

   4. Between header column and the first column of the content.

5. The same header column shall also be set at the top of the divided tables. Noted that when the kihon-hanmen is in vertical writing mode, if the following page is odd, there is usually no header column, i.e. the divided tables on even pages have a header column (see ).

   

6. When the table is divided by columns, the top KEISEN of the divided position shall be invisible, and the bottom KEISEN of the divided position shall be visible. However, there are methods where both top and bottom KEISENs are visible.

Line Gap Arrangement with Ruby and Other Objects

When setting lines in pages or columns, basically each line should be set by aligning with the line positions set in the kihon-hanmen

Also the last line of each page or each column should be set at the very end of the kihon-hanmen area or the column area.

The following objects should be set in the interlinear space.

1. Ruby

2. Emphasis dots

3. Underlines and sidelines

4. Interlinear reference marks

The following objects might jut into the interlinear space in conjunction with character size and other factors.

1. Tate-chu-yoko processed texts

2. Ornament characters

3. Warichu (inline cutting note)

4. The strings some of character positions are moved to block direction.

5. Strings where the character size is larger than the size specified in the kihon-hanmen (see ).

   

On the other hand when characters are inserted that are smaller than the basic character size of the paragraph, to keep the line gap of the paragraph visible the interlinear space looks wider as shown below (see ).

When the following interlinear objects are set at the very top of the page or the column, these objects are set out of the hanmen or the column area (see ):

1. In vertical writing mode, ruby, emphasis dots and sidelines at the right side of the character.

2. In horizontal writing mode, ruby and emphasis dots above the character.

3. In horizontal writing mode and vertical writing mode, reference marks between lines.

When the following objects which jut into the interlinear area are set on the very top line of the hanmen or column area, the part of the object that juts out is set outside of the hanmen or column area:

1. characters processed with tate-chu-yoko

2. ornamented characters

3. warichu

4. characters where each base line is changed to block direction

5. characters where the size is larger than the size dictated by the kihon-hanmen

Following interlinear objects are set outside the hanmen or column area, when set at the very last line of the hanmen or column area:

1. in vertical writing mode, ruby and sideline set left side of the base character

2. in horizontal writing mode, underline under main text

When the following objects which jut into the interlinear area are set for the very end line of the hanmen or column area, the part of the objects that juts out is set outside of the hanmen or column area (see ):

1. characters processed with tate-chu-yoko

2. ornamented characters

3. warichu

4. characters where each position is changed to block direction

5. characters whose size is larger than the size dictated by the kihon-hanmen

Processing of Spaces between Paragraphs

The space between paragraphs is usually same as line gap specified for the paragraphs.

Sometimes the space between paragraphs is specified. JIS X 4051 determines the space before the paragraph as "space before paragraph" and the space after the paragraph as "space after paragraph". When the "space before paragraph" or the "space after paragraph" is specified, the space will be kept between paragraphs. Thus "space before paragraph" or "space after paragraph" in the JIS X 4051 context is usually specified with absolute space sizes (see ) or a number of lines (see ).

When the "space before paragraph" or the "space after paragraph" is specified with a number of lines, the space is calculated with the basic character size and line gap of the paragraph. The space accompanying the header is calculated with the character size and the line gap of the kihon-hanmen. When the spaces among paragraphs are specified as a size of one line space, the results are as follows:

Adjustment of Processing of Realm in Block Direction

Except for the last line before the page break or new recto, the very last line set at the bottom of a page or a column is set to be aligned to the border of the kihon-hanmen or the column area. However, sometimes exceptions arise as follows:

1. Paragraphs and other objects set using a different character size or line gap from the kihon-hanmen. If there is no adjustment, the bottom of the last line will not be aligned to the bottom of the kihon-hanmen or column area in the block direction. Examples are block headings and end notes inserted after a paragraph.

2. When setting objects which are prohibited at the bottom of a kihon-hanmen or the bottom of a column, such as block headings, some blanks may appear on the previous page or in the previous column.

In these cases, there are two ways to solve the issue. Hereafter, procedure (a) will be called "adjustment processing in block direction".

1. Set the bottom of the line aligned to the bottom of the kihon-hanmen or the bottom of the column in the block direction, and move blanks to appropriate positions within the kihon-hanmen or the column.

2. Let the blanks appearing at the bottom of the hanmen or the column in block direction remain as they are.

There are some issues related to the adjustment procedure in the block direction as follows:

First, make best efforts to reduce such cases. Some examples of how not to let objects affect the alignment to the kihon-hanmen lines of following objects are:

1. Block heading: the area of the block heading is specified by an integral number of lines (see ).

2. Block direction space between paragraphs: to specify the size of a space with a number of lines (see ).

3. Other cases such as Haiku with larger characters, where the space of the block is specified with a number of lines.

When there is a following object and the properties of the object are different from the properties of the kihon-hanmen, set the object to align with the bottom edge of hanmen or column and adjust the space between the object and the text before. Examples are as follows:

1. Footnotes in horizontal writing mode (see ).

2. Sidenotes in vertical writing mode (see ).

When there is following text and objects and there is a blank as the result of setting text and objects with specified spaces, adjustment is done with the block direction space among text lines and objects. Examples are as follows:

1. Cases where an illustration or a table is inserted with "relative positioning and no turn around mode" in terms of JIS X 4051 (see ). Process should be implemented as follows:

   1. When only one illustration or table with "relative positioning and no turn around mode" is allocated at the top or the bottom of the hanmen or the column, the adjustment of the hanmen or the column is done between the illustration or the table and the main text (see ).

      

   2. When only one illustration or table with "relative positioning and no turn around mode" is allocated in the middle of a hanmen or a column the adjustment of the hanmen or the column is done evenly in the space before and after the illustration or table (see ).

      

   3. When two or more illustrations or tables are inserted, a fractional blank is distributed to multiple spaces between main text and illustrations or tables (see ).

2. Cases where an endnote is inserted (see ). In these cases, basically the adjustment is done between the endnote and the main text just after the endnote. However, when endnotes are only set at the very end of the hanmen or the column, the adjustment is done between the endnote and the main text before the endnote.

3. Cases where an inserted quotation block has a smaller character size and narrower line gap than the kihon-hanmen. In these cases, the adjustment processing in block direction is basically the same as for endnotes inserted between paragraphs (see , ).

   

   

When there is no place for the adjustment even if it is necessary, the blank at the very bottom of the hanmen or the column area in block direction is left as it is. One example is the blank after endnotes occupying one full page.

There are cases that there is not enough blank to set the following object and there happen to remain blank at the bottom of the realm of the hanmen or the column. The examples to let the rest blanck as is are as follows:

1. Cases where the heading is set at the bottom of the hanmen or column and the heading is moved to the next page or next column (see ).

2. Cases where the size of the space before or after the paragraph is specified and the paragraph is set at the top or bottom of a hanmen or a column (see ).

3. Cases where there are no dividable positions in the first part of a dividable table and the table is set at the top of the next page or the next column and there remains some blank space at the bottom of the previous hanmen or the previous column. Also cases where a dividable table is divided and there remains some blank space at the bottom of the previous hanmen or the previous column.